The Prohibition of Torture: From Absolute Prohibition to Conditional Permissibility in Light of Normative Ethical Theories
Keywords:
Torture; Absolute Prohibition; Conditional Prohibition; Virtue Ethics; Utilitarian Ethics; Deontological Ethics
Abstract
Torture, as an inhuman act, involves inflicting severe physical and psychological pain and suffering on an individual by state agents for the purpose of obtaining vital information, imposing punishment, or securing a confession. Despite its absolute prohibition in international instruments, in special circumstances such as the "ticking time bomb hypothesis," justifications are presented for the use of torture in the interest of national security or the preservation of social order. The present article, using a descriptive-analytical approach, examines the view of normative ethical systems on the prohibition of torture in exceptional circumstances. The research findings show that for followers of virtue ethics and deontological ethics, there is no moral justification for torture, even in emergency situations. In contrast, proponents of utilitarian ethics believe that torture can be used exceptionally, as the benefits gained from it outweigh the victim's pain. However, this argument is criticized and leads to the conclusion that accepting torture is in no way logical. Torture is not only impermissible, but its justification can lead to serious abuses.
References
The Holy Quran.
Books
1. Aristotle (1999). Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by Mohammad Hasan Lotfi. Tehran: Tarh-e Now. 1st ed.
2. Borhani, Mohsen. (2016). Ethics and Criminal Law. Tehran: Islamic Culture and Thought Research Institute Publications. 1st ed.
3. Dabbagh, Soroush. (2009). Lectures in Moral Philosophy. Tehran: Serat Publications. 1st ed.
4. Detailed Transcript of the Discussions of the Final Review Assembly of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (1985). Tehran: General Department of Cultural Affairs and Public Relations of the Islamic Consultative Assembly. 1st ed.
5. Gensler, Harry J. (2008). Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction. Translated by Hamideh Bahreini. Tehran: Naghd-e Ghalam. 1st ed.
6. Ghomashi, Saeed. (2014). Human Dignity and Its Role in Criminalization. Tehran: Mizan. 1st ed.
7. Helli, Hossein. (1994). Buhūth Fiqhīyah. Qom: Al-Manar. 1st ed.
8. Helmer, Robert L. (2004). The Fundamentals of Moral Philosophy. Translated by Masoud Alia. Tehran: Qoqnoos. 3rd ed.
9. Hosseini Langaroudi, Seyyed Morteza. (2001). Al-Rasā’il al-Thalāth. Qom: Nashr-e Islam. 1st ed.
10. Hurr al-'Āmilī, Muhammad ibn Hasan. (1995). Wasā’il al-Shi’a. Vol. 7. Qom: Mu’assasah Āl al-Bayt (AS), Iḥyā’ al-Turāth. 1st ed.
11. Hurr al-'Āmilī, Muhammad ibn Hasan. (1995). Wasā’il al-Shi’a. Vol. 8. Qom: Mu’assasah Āl al-Bayt (AS), Iḥyā’ al-Turāth. 1st ed.
12. Ibn Abī al-Ḥadīd, ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd ibn Hibatullāh. (1984). Sharh Nahj al-Balagha. Qom: Maktabat Ayatollah al-‘Uzma al-Mar‘ashī al-Najafī Publication.
13. Kant, Immanuel. The Metaphysics of Morals. Vol. 1: The Metaphysical Principles of Right. Translated by Manouchehr Sana'i Darehbid. Tehran: Naghsh va Negar. 1st ed.
14. Meshkini, Mirza Ali. (1998). Muṣṭalaḥāt al-Fiqh. Qom: Al-Hadi.
15. Mousavi Khoei, Seyyed Abul-Qasim. (1997). Fiqh al-Shi'a: Kitab al-Taharah. Vol. 6. Qom: Afagh Publication. 1st ed.
16. Mousavi Khomeini, Seyyed Ruhollah. (1994). Anwār al-Hidāya. Vol. 2. Tehran: Institute for the Compilation and Publication of the Works of Imam Khomeini. 1st ed.
17. Nobahar, Rahim. (2008). Criminal Law Protection of Public and Private Domains. Tehran: Jangal. 1st ed.
18. Nouri Tabarsi, Mirza Hossein. (n.d.). Mustadrak al-Wasā'il wa Mustanbaṭ al-Masā'il. Vol. 9. Qom: Mu’assasah Āl al-Bayt (AS), Iḥyā’ al-Turāth. 1st ed.
19. Rachels, James. (2008). The Elements of Moral Philosophy. Translated by Arash Akhgari. Tehran: Hekmat. 1st ed.
20. Rahiminejad, Esmaeil. (2008). Human Dignity in Criminal Law. Tehran: Mizan. 1st ed.
21. Shahryari, Hamid. (2006). Moral Philosophy in Western Thought from the Perspective of Alasdair MacIntyre. Tehran: SAMT. 1st ed.
22. Sullivan, Roger. (2001). An Introduction to Kant's Ethics. Translated by Izzatullah Fouladvand. Tehran: Tarh-e Now. 1st ed.
Theses and Dissertations
1. Aflatouni, Somayeh (2016). An Examination of Virtue Ethics from the Viewpoint of Rosalind Hursthouse. Qazvin: M.A. Thesis in Public Law, Imam Khomeini International University.
2. Ariyadoust, Seyyed Masoud (2013). An Examination of the Status of Virtue in Kant's Ethics. Zanjan: M.A. Thesis in Moral Philosophy, University of Zanjan.
3. Bostani, Fatemeh (2011). Virtue Ethics and the State. Tehran: M.A. Thesis in Public Law, Allameh Tabataba'i University.
4. Daneshou, Batoul (2017). An Examination of the Possibility of Justifying Torture in Cases of Necessity. Mashhad: M.A. Thesis in Law, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.
5. Farahbakhsh, Mojtaba (2010). The Impact of Utilitarianism on Criminalization. Tehran: Ph.D. Dissertation in Criminal Law and Criminology, University of Tehran.
6. Hosseini, Zahra (2017). The Theory of Virtue Ethics and Its Role in Inter-Religious Ethics. Khorasan: Ph.D. Dissertation in Islamic Theology, Al-Mustafa University, Khorasan Branch.
7. Khazaei, Zahra (2007). Virtue Ethics. Qom: M.A. Thesis in Islamic Philosophy and Theology, University of Qom.
8. Pashaei, Amir Hossein (2020). A Comparative Study of John Stuart Mill's School of Ethical Utilitarianism and the Theory of Expediency in Shi'a Theology (with an Emphasis on the Baghdad Theological School). Qom: Ph.D. Dissertation in Religious Studies, University of Religions and Denominations.
9. Ramadan, Nasrin (2008). An Examination of the Foundations and Methods of Moral Development in Duty-Based and Virtue-Based Schools. Qom: M.A. Thesis in Islamic Philosophy and Theology, University of Qom.
10. Ramazani, Zahra (2011). The Prohibition of Torture in Imamiyyah Jurisprudence and Criminal Law. Tehran: M.A. Thesis in Jurisprudence and Principles of Islamic Law, Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch.
11. Soleimani, Elham (2010). A Comparative Study of Aristotle's Virtue Ethics and Kant's Deontology. Ilam: M.A. Thesis in Theology, Philosophy and Islamic Wisdom, University of Ilam.
12. Tashakkori Bafghi, Saeed (2021). Confession Under Torture in Iran and Its Application to Human Rights. Taft: M.A. Thesis in Public Law, Islamic Azad University, Taft Branch.
13. Teimouri, Hamidullah (2018). A Comparative Study of the Prohibition of Torture in Afghan Law and International Instruments. Tehran: M.A. Thesis in Criminal Law and Criminology, Allameh Tabataba'i University.
Articles
1. Alizadeh-Tabatabaei, Seyyed Hossein et al. (2017). “The Absolute Prohibition of Torture: An Islamic Perspective.” Legal Research Quarterly. No. 81. 163-190. https://doi.org/10.22034/jlr.2018.113128
2. Alizadeh-Tabatabaei, Seyyed Hossein et al. (2018). “The Absolute Prohibition of Torture in the Utilitarian Ethical System.” Mabani-e Fiqhi-e Islami. No. 22. 121-152. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/jijl/Article/812899
3. Ardabili, Mohammad Ali (1991). “Torture.” Legal Research Journal. No. 9. 179-216. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/539043
4. Ardabili, Mohammad Ali (1998). “A Discourse on Torture and Its Prevention.” Legal Research. Nos. 21 & 22. 105-120. https://ensani.ir/fa/article/7055/
5. Arshadi, Mohammad Hossein et al. (2015). “An Analysis and Review of Smart's Act Utilitarianism.” Hekmat va Falsafeh. No. 3. 43-70. https://www.sid.ir/fa/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=28948
6. Atrak, Hossein (2010). “Moral Deontology.” Ethics in Science and Technology Quarterly. Nos. 1 & 2. 27-35. https://www.sid.ir/paper/122639/fa
7. Hamzeh, Ghasem (2008). “An Examination of the Prohibition of Torture in the Islamic Legal System.” Fiqh and Principles of Law Quarterly. No. 14. 67-88. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/1058677
8. Hosseini Souraki, Seyyed Mohammad (2009). “An Examination and Critique of Moral Utilitarianism.” Philosophical and Theological Research. No. 3. https://doi.org/10.22091/pfk.2011.134
9. Jalili Moghadam, Mojtaba (2010). “An Examination of Bentham's Utilitarianism.” Ma'rifat. No. 159. 109-122. http://noo.rs/wNMrX
10. Mobini, Kiumarth et al. (2020). “The Ethical Theory of Utilitarianism and the Development of Human Rights.” Ethics in Science and Technology Quarterly. No. 4. 17-24. http://ethicsjournal.ir/article-1-2837-fa.html
11. Mohammadi, Mohammad (2017). “An Examination of the Necessity of Denying Torture to the Accused in Light of the Principle of Respect for Human Dignity in Iranian Criminal Law and International Instruments.” Journal of Political Science, Law and Jurisprudence Studies. No. 2. 70-82. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/1232213
12. Movahedi, Mohammad Javad (2010). “An Examination of the Relationship between Deontology and Consequentialism.” Philosophical Research, Journal of the Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Tabriz. No. 216. 155-179. https://journals.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_366.html
13. Nobahar, Rahim (2005). “Religion and Human Dignity.” Proceedings of the International Conference on the Theoretical Foundations of Human Rights. Qom: Mofid University. 613-632.
14. Pinkaevs Edmund, L. (1999). “Virtues.” Translated by Seyyed Hamidreza Hassani and Mehdi Alipour. Naqd va Nazar. Nos. 19-20. 405-416. https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_21083.html
15. Sadeghi, Mohammad Hadi (2001). “The Prohibition of Torture in Islamic Law.” Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, Shiraz University. No. 33. 1-18. https://www.sid.ir/paper/13308/fa
16. Sadeghi, Mohammad Hadi (2002). “The Crime of Torture in Iranian Law.” Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, Shiraz University. No. 37. 120-136. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/42924
Domestic Laws and International Instruments
1. Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990 AD).
2. Constitution of Iran (1979).
3. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1980 AD).
4. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966 AD).
5. Islamic Penal Code (2013).
6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1998 AD).
English Sources
1. Allhoff, Fritz (2005). “A Defense of Torture: Separation of Cases, Ticking Time-bombs, and Moral Justification.” International Journal of Applied Philosophy. 19: 2.
2. Bentham, Jeremy (2000). An Introduction to the principles of Morals and Legislation, 1781, Batoche Books Kitchener, First Edition.
3. Carlsmith, K. M., & Sood, A. M. (2009). “The fine line between interrogation and retribution.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. No. 45.
4. Einolf, Christopher (2016). “The Ethics and Politics of Torture.” Public Administration Review. Vol. 76, No. 2.
5. Matthews, Richard (2008). The Absolute Violation: Why Torture Must Be Prohibited, MeGill-Queen’s University Press, First Edition.
6. Moloney, Joe (2010). “A Moral Investigation of Torture in the Post 9.11 World.” The Undergraduate review. No. 6.
7. Sheleff. LS (1987). Ultimate Penalties: Capital Punishment, Life Imprisonment, Physical Torture. Ohio state University Press, First Edition.
8. Sung, C. (2003). “Torturing the ticking-bomb terrorist: An analysis of judicially sanctioned torture in the context of terrorism.” Boston College Third World Law Journal. No. 23.
9. William O’Donohue and others (2014). “The Ethics of Enhanced Interrogations and Torture: A Reappraisal of the Argument.” Ethics & Behavior. No. 24.
Books
1. Aristotle (1999). Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by Mohammad Hasan Lotfi. Tehran: Tarh-e Now. 1st ed.
2. Borhani, Mohsen. (2016). Ethics and Criminal Law. Tehran: Islamic Culture and Thought Research Institute Publications. 1st ed.
3. Dabbagh, Soroush. (2009). Lectures in Moral Philosophy. Tehran: Serat Publications. 1st ed.
4. Detailed Transcript of the Discussions of the Final Review Assembly of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. (1985). Tehran: General Department of Cultural Affairs and Public Relations of the Islamic Consultative Assembly. 1st ed.
5. Gensler, Harry J. (2008). Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction. Translated by Hamideh Bahreini. Tehran: Naghd-e Ghalam. 1st ed.
6. Ghomashi, Saeed. (2014). Human Dignity and Its Role in Criminalization. Tehran: Mizan. 1st ed.
7. Helli, Hossein. (1994). Buhūth Fiqhīyah. Qom: Al-Manar. 1st ed.
8. Helmer, Robert L. (2004). The Fundamentals of Moral Philosophy. Translated by Masoud Alia. Tehran: Qoqnoos. 3rd ed.
9. Hosseini Langaroudi, Seyyed Morteza. (2001). Al-Rasā’il al-Thalāth. Qom: Nashr-e Islam. 1st ed.
10. Hurr al-'Āmilī, Muhammad ibn Hasan. (1995). Wasā’il al-Shi’a. Vol. 7. Qom: Mu’assasah Āl al-Bayt (AS), Iḥyā’ al-Turāth. 1st ed.
11. Hurr al-'Āmilī, Muhammad ibn Hasan. (1995). Wasā’il al-Shi’a. Vol. 8. Qom: Mu’assasah Āl al-Bayt (AS), Iḥyā’ al-Turāth. 1st ed.
12. Ibn Abī al-Ḥadīd, ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd ibn Hibatullāh. (1984). Sharh Nahj al-Balagha. Qom: Maktabat Ayatollah al-‘Uzma al-Mar‘ashī al-Najafī Publication.
13. Kant, Immanuel. The Metaphysics of Morals. Vol. 1: The Metaphysical Principles of Right. Translated by Manouchehr Sana'i Darehbid. Tehran: Naghsh va Negar. 1st ed.
14. Meshkini, Mirza Ali. (1998). Muṣṭalaḥāt al-Fiqh. Qom: Al-Hadi.
15. Mousavi Khoei, Seyyed Abul-Qasim. (1997). Fiqh al-Shi'a: Kitab al-Taharah. Vol. 6. Qom: Afagh Publication. 1st ed.
16. Mousavi Khomeini, Seyyed Ruhollah. (1994). Anwār al-Hidāya. Vol. 2. Tehran: Institute for the Compilation and Publication of the Works of Imam Khomeini. 1st ed.
17. Nobahar, Rahim. (2008). Criminal Law Protection of Public and Private Domains. Tehran: Jangal. 1st ed.
18. Nouri Tabarsi, Mirza Hossein. (n.d.). Mustadrak al-Wasā'il wa Mustanbaṭ al-Masā'il. Vol. 9. Qom: Mu’assasah Āl al-Bayt (AS), Iḥyā’ al-Turāth. 1st ed.
19. Rachels, James. (2008). The Elements of Moral Philosophy. Translated by Arash Akhgari. Tehran: Hekmat. 1st ed.
20. Rahiminejad, Esmaeil. (2008). Human Dignity in Criminal Law. Tehran: Mizan. 1st ed.
21. Shahryari, Hamid. (2006). Moral Philosophy in Western Thought from the Perspective of Alasdair MacIntyre. Tehran: SAMT. 1st ed.
22. Sullivan, Roger. (2001). An Introduction to Kant's Ethics. Translated by Izzatullah Fouladvand. Tehran: Tarh-e Now. 1st ed.
Theses and Dissertations
1. Aflatouni, Somayeh (2016). An Examination of Virtue Ethics from the Viewpoint of Rosalind Hursthouse. Qazvin: M.A. Thesis in Public Law, Imam Khomeini International University.
2. Ariyadoust, Seyyed Masoud (2013). An Examination of the Status of Virtue in Kant's Ethics. Zanjan: M.A. Thesis in Moral Philosophy, University of Zanjan.
3. Bostani, Fatemeh (2011). Virtue Ethics and the State. Tehran: M.A. Thesis in Public Law, Allameh Tabataba'i University.
4. Daneshou, Batoul (2017). An Examination of the Possibility of Justifying Torture in Cases of Necessity. Mashhad: M.A. Thesis in Law, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.
5. Farahbakhsh, Mojtaba (2010). The Impact of Utilitarianism on Criminalization. Tehran: Ph.D. Dissertation in Criminal Law and Criminology, University of Tehran.
6. Hosseini, Zahra (2017). The Theory of Virtue Ethics and Its Role in Inter-Religious Ethics. Khorasan: Ph.D. Dissertation in Islamic Theology, Al-Mustafa University, Khorasan Branch.
7. Khazaei, Zahra (2007). Virtue Ethics. Qom: M.A. Thesis in Islamic Philosophy and Theology, University of Qom.
8. Pashaei, Amir Hossein (2020). A Comparative Study of John Stuart Mill's School of Ethical Utilitarianism and the Theory of Expediency in Shi'a Theology (with an Emphasis on the Baghdad Theological School). Qom: Ph.D. Dissertation in Religious Studies, University of Religions and Denominations.
9. Ramadan, Nasrin (2008). An Examination of the Foundations and Methods of Moral Development in Duty-Based and Virtue-Based Schools. Qom: M.A. Thesis in Islamic Philosophy and Theology, University of Qom.
10. Ramazani, Zahra (2011). The Prohibition of Torture in Imamiyyah Jurisprudence and Criminal Law. Tehran: M.A. Thesis in Jurisprudence and Principles of Islamic Law, Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch.
11. Soleimani, Elham (2010). A Comparative Study of Aristotle's Virtue Ethics and Kant's Deontology. Ilam: M.A. Thesis in Theology, Philosophy and Islamic Wisdom, University of Ilam.
12. Tashakkori Bafghi, Saeed (2021). Confession Under Torture in Iran and Its Application to Human Rights. Taft: M.A. Thesis in Public Law, Islamic Azad University, Taft Branch.
13. Teimouri, Hamidullah (2018). A Comparative Study of the Prohibition of Torture in Afghan Law and International Instruments. Tehran: M.A. Thesis in Criminal Law and Criminology, Allameh Tabataba'i University.
Articles
1. Alizadeh-Tabatabaei, Seyyed Hossein et al. (2017). “The Absolute Prohibition of Torture: An Islamic Perspective.” Legal Research Quarterly. No. 81. 163-190. https://doi.org/10.22034/jlr.2018.113128
2. Alizadeh-Tabatabaei, Seyyed Hossein et al. (2018). “The Absolute Prohibition of Torture in the Utilitarian Ethical System.” Mabani-e Fiqhi-e Islami. No. 22. 121-152. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/jijl/Article/812899
3. Ardabili, Mohammad Ali (1991). “Torture.” Legal Research Journal. No. 9. 179-216. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/539043
4. Ardabili, Mohammad Ali (1998). “A Discourse on Torture and Its Prevention.” Legal Research. Nos. 21 & 22. 105-120. https://ensani.ir/fa/article/7055/
5. Arshadi, Mohammad Hossein et al. (2015). “An Analysis and Review of Smart's Act Utilitarianism.” Hekmat va Falsafeh. No. 3. 43-70. https://www.sid.ir/fa/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=28948
6. Atrak, Hossein (2010). “Moral Deontology.” Ethics in Science and Technology Quarterly. Nos. 1 & 2. 27-35. https://www.sid.ir/paper/122639/fa
7. Hamzeh, Ghasem (2008). “An Examination of the Prohibition of Torture in the Islamic Legal System.” Fiqh and Principles of Law Quarterly. No. 14. 67-88. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/1058677
8. Hosseini Souraki, Seyyed Mohammad (2009). “An Examination and Critique of Moral Utilitarianism.” Philosophical and Theological Research. No. 3. https://doi.org/10.22091/pfk.2011.134
9. Jalili Moghadam, Mojtaba (2010). “An Examination of Bentham's Utilitarianism.” Ma'rifat. No. 159. 109-122. http://noo.rs/wNMrX
10. Mobini, Kiumarth et al. (2020). “The Ethical Theory of Utilitarianism and the Development of Human Rights.” Ethics in Science and Technology Quarterly. No. 4. 17-24. http://ethicsjournal.ir/article-1-2837-fa.html
11. Mohammadi, Mohammad (2017). “An Examination of the Necessity of Denying Torture to the Accused in Light of the Principle of Respect for Human Dignity in Iranian Criminal Law and International Instruments.” Journal of Political Science, Law and Jurisprudence Studies. No. 2. 70-82. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/1232213
12. Movahedi, Mohammad Javad (2010). “An Examination of the Relationship between Deontology and Consequentialism.” Philosophical Research, Journal of the Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Tabriz. No. 216. 155-179. https://journals.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_366.html
13. Nobahar, Rahim (2005). “Religion and Human Dignity.” Proceedings of the International Conference on the Theoretical Foundations of Human Rights. Qom: Mofid University. 613-632.
14. Pinkaevs Edmund, L. (1999). “Virtues.” Translated by Seyyed Hamidreza Hassani and Mehdi Alipour. Naqd va Nazar. Nos. 19-20. 405-416. https://jpt.isca.ac.ir/article_21083.html
15. Sadeghi, Mohammad Hadi (2001). “The Prohibition of Torture in Islamic Law.” Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, Shiraz University. No. 33. 1-18. https://www.sid.ir/paper/13308/fa
16. Sadeghi, Mohammad Hadi (2002). “The Crime of Torture in Iranian Law.” Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, Shiraz University. No. 37. 120-136. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/42924
Domestic Laws and International Instruments
1. Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990 AD).
2. Constitution of Iran (1979).
3. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1980 AD).
4. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966 AD).
5. Islamic Penal Code (2013).
6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1998 AD).
English Sources
1. Allhoff, Fritz (2005). “A Defense of Torture: Separation of Cases, Ticking Time-bombs, and Moral Justification.” International Journal of Applied Philosophy. 19: 2.
2. Bentham, Jeremy (2000). An Introduction to the principles of Morals and Legislation, 1781, Batoche Books Kitchener, First Edition.
3. Carlsmith, K. M., & Sood, A. M. (2009). “The fine line between interrogation and retribution.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. No. 45.
4. Einolf, Christopher (2016). “The Ethics and Politics of Torture.” Public Administration Review. Vol. 76, No. 2.
5. Matthews, Richard (2008). The Absolute Violation: Why Torture Must Be Prohibited, MeGill-Queen’s University Press, First Edition.
6. Moloney, Joe (2010). “A Moral Investigation of Torture in the Post 9.11 World.” The Undergraduate review. No. 6.
7. Sheleff. LS (1987). Ultimate Penalties: Capital Punishment, Life Imprisonment, Physical Torture. Ohio state University Press, First Edition.
8. Sung, C. (2003). “Torturing the ticking-bomb terrorist: An analysis of judicially sanctioned torture in the context of terrorism.” Boston College Third World Law Journal. No. 23.
9. William O’Donohue and others (2014). “The Ethics of Enhanced Interrogations and Torture: A Reappraisal of the Argument.” Ethics & Behavior. No. 24.
Published
2025-10-30
How to Cite
Sharifi Ziraksar, H., & Dad Kamran, H. (2025). The Prohibition of Torture: From Absolute Prohibition to Conditional Permissibility in Light of Normative Ethical Theories. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 8(11), 35-54. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v8i11.3049
Section
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