Combating Stock Theft with Deoxyribonucleic Acid Samples and Innovative Technology in South Africa
Keywords:
Combating; Deoxyribonucleic Acid Samples; Innovative Technology (Internet of Things); Stock Theft; South Africa
Abstract
Stock theft strips the South African economy of a great deal of money. This scourge threatens both the commercial and emergent farming sectors. The goats, sheep and cattle losses amount to millions of rands in Eastern Cape (EC), Limpopo (LIM) and KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Provinces, which in 2021 were touted as the top Ten (10) hot spot police stations. As a recourse, the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) samples are used as an important forensic evidential tool to resolve this crime and ensure accuracy and fairness in the Criminal Justice System (CJS). Equally, the Mobile Telephone Network (MTN) (The South African cellular service provider) and Huawei Technologies collaborated to launch the ‘connected animal solution-Internet of Things (IoT),’ a digitised innovation, which allows livestock farmers to improve their animal management and health screening through activity and movement-monitoring and related analysis. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the combating of stock theft with DNA samples and innovative technology (IoT), in this regard, focusing on the selected areas of KZN Province. From a qualitative standpoint, empirical research, documentary studies, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interview (KIIs) were adopted as data collection methods. The collected data was analysed employing the inductive Thematic Content Analysis (TCA). This paper found that the indicated nexus can adequately aid in evidence gathering relating to identification by DNA characteristics (I.e. Typing and sample usage), ownership (I.e. Kingship identification), paternity testing, management and monitoring of livestock movements, potential danger minimisation, tracking of straying livestock, improving efficiency and reduction of costs. It is recommended that livestock farmers should exercise their actionable educational insights regarding the effective use of the DNA samples and IoT by exercising physical matching of ear notches and brands, providing specific descriptions, and verifying their near real-time visibility in varying periods.
References
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Bandyopadhyay, D and Sen, J. (2011). Internet of things: Applications and challenges in technology and standardization. Wireless Personal Communications, 58(1): 49-69.
Brantingham, P.L and Brantingham, P.J. (1993). Nodes, paths and edges: Considerations on the complexity of crime and the physical environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13(1): 3-28.
Brantingham, P.L and Brantingham, P.J and Andresen, M.A. (2018). The geometry of crime and Crime Pattern Theory. In: Environmental criminology and crime analysis. Edited by Wrotley, R and Townsley, M. London: Taylor and Francis.
Braun, V and Clarke, V. (2014). What can “Thematic Analysis” offer health and wellbeing researchers? International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 9(1): 1-2.
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Clack, W. (2018). Rural crimes: Non-reporting of livestock theft by farmers. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, Special Edition: Rural crime, 31(4): i-vii.
Clack, W. (2013). The extent of stock theft in South Africa. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, 26(2): 77- 91.
Clarke, V and Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. In: Encyclopedia of critical psychology. T. Teo (Ed.). Springer: New York.
Chalimov, A. (2022). IoT in agriculture: 8 technology use cases for smart farming (And challenges to consider). Herzliya, Israel: Eastern Peak.
Dean, S. (2020). Stock theft - Over R1,2 billion in livestock theft reported in 2018/2019. Farmer’s Weekly, 17 January, 24.
Dieng, O., Thiare, O., Diop, B and Pham, C. (2017). Study on IoT solutions for preventing cattle rustling in African context. In: Proceedings of ICC conference, Cambridge city, United Kingdom, March (ICC 17), 1-12.
Donnermeyer, J.F. (2014). Agriculture Crime In The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Edited by Albanese, J.S. (1st ed.). John New Jersey: Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Doorewaard, C. (2020). Livestock theft: A criminological assessment and sample-specific profile of the perpetrators. Unpublished Master of Arts: Criminology. University of South Africa: Muckleneuk Ridge, Pretoria.
Eck, J.E and Weisburd, D. (1995). Crime places in crime theory. In: Crime places crime prevention studies. Eck J.E and Weisburd, D. Monsey, New York: Willow Tress Press.
Eloff, C and Prinsloo, J. (2009). Application of spatial technology and multi-land use classes in aid of a crime management strategy: A microanalytical approach. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, 22(3): 24-42.
Geldenhuys, K. (2011). Biology section: DNA is life – part 2. Servamus – Community-Based Safety and Security Magazine, March: 44-46.
Germani, L., Mecarelli, V., Baruffa, G., Rugini, L and Frescura, F. (2019). An IoT architecture for continuous livestock monitoring using LoRa LPWAN. Electronics, 8(12): 1435.
Gialopsos, B.M and Carter, J.W. (2015). Offender searches and crime events. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 31(1): 53-70.
Harikrishnan, R and Gaikwad, M.M. (2021). IoT solutions for farmers on livestock management in smart city: A bibliometric survey. Library Philosophy and Practice (E-journal), 5796, 1-29.
Imtihan, K., Bagye, W., Zaen, M.T.A., Fadli, S and Ashari, M. (2021). Image capture device based on Internet of Thing technology. IOP Conference Series. Materials Science and Engineering; Bristol, 1088(1): 1-6.
Kempen, A. (2015). At last! The DNA Act becomes a reality. Servamus – Community Safety and Security Magazine, 108(2): 10-18.
KwaZulu-Natal Department of Community Safety and Liaison. (2008). Stock theft in KwaZulu- Natal. KZN Department of Community Safety and Liaison: Pietermaritzburg.
Marckwardt, A.H, Cassidy, F.G and McMillan, J.G. (1995). Livestock. Chicago: J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company.
Lombard, W.A. (2015). The financial impact of sheep theft in the Free State Province of South Africa. Unpublished Magister Scientiae Agriculturae. Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences Department of Agricultural Economics University of the Free State: Bloemfontein.
Lombard, W.A, Van Niekerk, H.N and Maré, F.A. (2017). Assessing the economic impact of livestock theft in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. 21st International Farm Management Congress, John McIntyre Conference Centre, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, Congress Proceedings, July, 1-14.
Lombard, W., van Niekerk, W., Geyer, A and Jordaan, H. (2017). Factors affecting sheep theft in the Free State Province of South Africa. https://scholar.google.com/citations? ....
Kim, N., Lee, S and Ha, T. (2015) Understanding IoT through the human activity: Analogical interpretation of IoT by Activity Theory. In Communications in computer and information science. Stephanidis C. (Ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Kuutti, K. (1995). Activity Theory as a potential framework for human-computer interaction research framework. In Context and consciousness: Activity Theory and human computer interaction. Edited by Nardi, B.A. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Maluleke, W. (2014). Perspectives on stock theft prevention in the Giyani policing area of Limpopo Province. Unpublished Magister Technologiae: Policing, Safety and Security Management. Tshwane University of Technology: Soshanguve South.
Maluleke, W. (2018). The integration of conventional and technological methods in combating stock theft by selected stakeholders in the KwaZulu-Natal Province. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, Special Edition: Rural crime, 31(4): 123-146.
Maluleke, W. (2016). The use of Deoxyribonucleic Acid in combating stock theft in South Africa. Unpublished Doctor Technologiae: Policing, Safety and Security Management. Tshwane University of Technology: Soshanguve South.
Maluleke, W and Mofokeng, J.T. (2018). Challenges facing the implementation of Deoxyribonucleic Acid technology in combating stock theft in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies, 10(1): 311- 345.
Manganyi, F.M., Maluleke, W and Shandu, S.N. (2018). An examination of co-operative strategies towards policing stock theft in the KwaZulu-Natal Province. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, Special Edition: Rural crime, 31(4): 97-122.
Mapholi, O. (2015). Animal genetics - Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme. http://www.arc.agric.za/arc-api/Pages/Animal-Geneticnpspx.
Memon, M.H., Kumar, W., Memon, A.R., Chowdhry, B.S., Aamir, M and Kumar, P. (2016). Internet of Things (IoT) enabled smart animal farm. Proceedings of the 10th INDIACom; INDIACom, 3rd 2016 International Conference on “Computing for Sustainable Global Development,” 16th-18th March, Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi (India), 1-7.
Nana, P. (2021). Cutting-edge technology is raising life security in Africa to new levels. September 10, DispatchLive [Online]. https://www.dispatchlive.co.za/news/opinion/ …
National Stock Theft Prevention Forum. (2016). Manual for the prevention of stock theft: The farmer’s guide to the prevention and handling of stock theft. Edited by Grobler, K. National Stock Theft Prevention Forum in collaboration with Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Agri Connect (Pty) Ltd: Pretoria.
New South Wales Stock Theft and Trespass Review Final Report [Online]. (2016). https://www.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/Media%20Releases/2017/final-report-NSW-stock-theft-and-trespass-review.pdf.
Nkwari, P.K.M., Rimer, S and Paul, B.S. (2014). Cattle monitoring system using Wireless Sensor Network in order to prevent cattle rustling. IST-Africa 2014 Conference Proceedings, 1-10.
Sidebottom, A and Wortley, R. (2016). Environmental criminology. In The handbook of criminology theory. Edited by Piquero, A.R. Hoboken, New Jersey, United States: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Smarter Technologies [Online]. (2022). IoT Cattle Tracking Collar. https://smartertechnologies.com/smarter-products/gps-cattle-collar/.
South Africa. (2014). A New DNA Act - The Criminal Law (Forensic Procedures) Amendment Act 37 of 2013 (Hereafter referred to as the ‘DNA Act’) was finally passed into law on the 27 January 2014. Government Gazette, Vol. 583, No. 52. Cape Town, 27 January, No. 37268 [Online]. http://dnaproject.co.za/legislation-homepage/legislation/a-new-dna-act/.
Republic of South Africa. (2002). Animal Identification Act (Act No. 6 of 2002). Government Gazette, Vol. 769 No. 23479, 3 June.
South African Police Service. 2011. Stock Theft Act, No. 57 of 1957. Juta Law, 46 (34535), Sep 30:1-2.
Tarekegne, C. (2021). Voices of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia: Questioning research and services? Academia Letters, Article 3688, 1-6.
Uys, G. (2017). How to catch a stock thief? June 6, Farmer’s Weekly. https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/farm-basics/how-to-livestock/catch-stock-thief/.
Van Sleeuwen, S.E.M., Ruiter, S and Menting, B. (2018). A time for crime: Temporal aspects of repeat offenders’ crime location choices. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 55(4), 38-568.
Webster, M. (2015). Livestock. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/livestock.
Wehmeier, S. (Editor). (2006). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wilde, A and Zaluska, E.D. (Sa). Revisiting Activity Theory within the Internet of Things. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/352915/1/InternetSci.pdf.
Wortley, R and Townsley, M. (2016). Environmental criminology and crime analysis. New York: Routledge.
Yrjö; E., Reijo, M and Raija-Leena, P. (1999). Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zantsi, S and Nkunjana, T. (2021). A review of possibilities for using animal tracking devices to mitigate stock theft in smallholder livestock farming systems in rural South Africa. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 49(1): 162-182.
Andresen, M.A. (2014). Environmental Criminology: Evolution, theory, and practice. Routledge: New York.
Bandyopadhyay, D and Sen, J. (2011). Internet of things: Applications and challenges in technology and standardization. Wireless Personal Communications, 58(1): 49-69.
Brantingham, P.L and Brantingham, P.J. (1993). Nodes, paths and edges: Considerations on the complexity of crime and the physical environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13(1): 3-28.
Brantingham, P.L and Brantingham, P.J and Andresen, M.A. (2018). The geometry of crime and Crime Pattern Theory. In: Environmental criminology and crime analysis. Edited by Wrotley, R and Townsley, M. London: Taylor and Francis.
Braun, V and Clarke, V. (2014). What can “Thematic Analysis” offer health and wellbeing researchers? International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 9(1): 1-2.
Burger, R. (2012). Effective stock theft control and monitoring system: Agri-Alert. http://agrialert.blogspot.com/2012/08/effective-stock-theft-control-and.html.
Centre for African Journalists News [Online]. (2018). Early warning systems to halt stock theft and rhino poaching. https://www.iol.co.za/the-star/news/early-warning-systems-to-halt-stock-theft-and-rhino-poaching-18143908.
Clack, W. (2018). Rural crimes: Non-reporting of livestock theft by farmers. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, Special Edition: Rural crime, 31(4): i-vii.
Clack, W. (2013). The extent of stock theft in South Africa. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, 26(2): 77- 91.
Clarke, V and Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. In: Encyclopedia of critical psychology. T. Teo (Ed.). Springer: New York.
Chalimov, A. (2022). IoT in agriculture: 8 technology use cases for smart farming (And challenges to consider). Herzliya, Israel: Eastern Peak.
Dean, S. (2020). Stock theft - Over R1,2 billion in livestock theft reported in 2018/2019. Farmer’s Weekly, 17 January, 24.
Dieng, O., Thiare, O., Diop, B and Pham, C. (2017). Study on IoT solutions for preventing cattle rustling in African context. In: Proceedings of ICC conference, Cambridge city, United Kingdom, March (ICC 17), 1-12.
Donnermeyer, J.F. (2014). Agriculture Crime In The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Edited by Albanese, J.S. (1st ed.). John New Jersey: Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Doorewaard, C. (2020). Livestock theft: A criminological assessment and sample-specific profile of the perpetrators. Unpublished Master of Arts: Criminology. University of South Africa: Muckleneuk Ridge, Pretoria.
Eck, J.E and Weisburd, D. (1995). Crime places in crime theory. In: Crime places crime prevention studies. Eck J.E and Weisburd, D. Monsey, New York: Willow Tress Press.
Eloff, C and Prinsloo, J. (2009). Application of spatial technology and multi-land use classes in aid of a crime management strategy: A microanalytical approach. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, 22(3): 24-42.
Geldenhuys, K. (2011). Biology section: DNA is life – part 2. Servamus – Community-Based Safety and Security Magazine, March: 44-46.
Germani, L., Mecarelli, V., Baruffa, G., Rugini, L and Frescura, F. (2019). An IoT architecture for continuous livestock monitoring using LoRa LPWAN. Electronics, 8(12): 1435.
Gialopsos, B.M and Carter, J.W. (2015). Offender searches and crime events. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 31(1): 53-70.
Harikrishnan, R and Gaikwad, M.M. (2021). IoT solutions for farmers on livestock management in smart city: A bibliometric survey. Library Philosophy and Practice (E-journal), 5796, 1-29.
Imtihan, K., Bagye, W., Zaen, M.T.A., Fadli, S and Ashari, M. (2021). Image capture device based on Internet of Thing technology. IOP Conference Series. Materials Science and Engineering; Bristol, 1088(1): 1-6.
Kempen, A. (2015). At last! The DNA Act becomes a reality. Servamus – Community Safety and Security Magazine, 108(2): 10-18.
KwaZulu-Natal Department of Community Safety and Liaison. (2008). Stock theft in KwaZulu- Natal. KZN Department of Community Safety and Liaison: Pietermaritzburg.
Marckwardt, A.H, Cassidy, F.G and McMillan, J.G. (1995). Livestock. Chicago: J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company.
Lombard, W.A. (2015). The financial impact of sheep theft in the Free State Province of South Africa. Unpublished Magister Scientiae Agriculturae. Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences Department of Agricultural Economics University of the Free State: Bloemfontein.
Lombard, W.A, Van Niekerk, H.N and Maré, F.A. (2017). Assessing the economic impact of livestock theft in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. 21st International Farm Management Congress, John McIntyre Conference Centre, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, Congress Proceedings, July, 1-14.
Lombard, W., van Niekerk, W., Geyer, A and Jordaan, H. (2017). Factors affecting sheep theft in the Free State Province of South Africa. https://scholar.google.com/citations? ....
Kim, N., Lee, S and Ha, T. (2015) Understanding IoT through the human activity: Analogical interpretation of IoT by Activity Theory. In Communications in computer and information science. Stephanidis C. (Ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Kuutti, K. (1995). Activity Theory as a potential framework for human-computer interaction research framework. In Context and consciousness: Activity Theory and human computer interaction. Edited by Nardi, B.A. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Maluleke, W. (2014). Perspectives on stock theft prevention in the Giyani policing area of Limpopo Province. Unpublished Magister Technologiae: Policing, Safety and Security Management. Tshwane University of Technology: Soshanguve South.
Maluleke, W. (2018). The integration of conventional and technological methods in combating stock theft by selected stakeholders in the KwaZulu-Natal Province. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, Special Edition: Rural crime, 31(4): 123-146.
Maluleke, W. (2016). The use of Deoxyribonucleic Acid in combating stock theft in South Africa. Unpublished Doctor Technologiae: Policing, Safety and Security Management. Tshwane University of Technology: Soshanguve South.
Maluleke, W and Mofokeng, J.T. (2018). Challenges facing the implementation of Deoxyribonucleic Acid technology in combating stock theft in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies, 10(1): 311- 345.
Manganyi, F.M., Maluleke, W and Shandu, S.N. (2018). An examination of co-operative strategies towards policing stock theft in the KwaZulu-Natal Province. Acta Criminologica: Southern African Journal of Criminology, Special Edition: Rural crime, 31(4): 97-122.
Mapholi, O. (2015). Animal genetics - Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme. http://www.arc.agric.za/arc-api/Pages/Animal-Geneticnpspx.
Memon, M.H., Kumar, W., Memon, A.R., Chowdhry, B.S., Aamir, M and Kumar, P. (2016). Internet of Things (IoT) enabled smart animal farm. Proceedings of the 10th INDIACom; INDIACom, 3rd 2016 International Conference on “Computing for Sustainable Global Development,” 16th-18th March, Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi (India), 1-7.
Nana, P. (2021). Cutting-edge technology is raising life security in Africa to new levels. September 10, DispatchLive [Online]. https://www.dispatchlive.co.za/news/opinion/ …
National Stock Theft Prevention Forum. (2016). Manual for the prevention of stock theft: The farmer’s guide to the prevention and handling of stock theft. Edited by Grobler, K. National Stock Theft Prevention Forum in collaboration with Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Agri Connect (Pty) Ltd: Pretoria.
New South Wales Stock Theft and Trespass Review Final Report [Online]. (2016). https://www.justice.nsw.gov.au/Documents/Media%20Releases/2017/final-report-NSW-stock-theft-and-trespass-review.pdf.
Nkwari, P.K.M., Rimer, S and Paul, B.S. (2014). Cattle monitoring system using Wireless Sensor Network in order to prevent cattle rustling. IST-Africa 2014 Conference Proceedings, 1-10.
Sidebottom, A and Wortley, R. (2016). Environmental criminology. In The handbook of criminology theory. Edited by Piquero, A.R. Hoboken, New Jersey, United States: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Smarter Technologies [Online]. (2022). IoT Cattle Tracking Collar. https://smartertechnologies.com/smarter-products/gps-cattle-collar/.
South Africa. (2014). A New DNA Act - The Criminal Law (Forensic Procedures) Amendment Act 37 of 2013 (Hereafter referred to as the ‘DNA Act’) was finally passed into law on the 27 January 2014. Government Gazette, Vol. 583, No. 52. Cape Town, 27 January, No. 37268 [Online]. http://dnaproject.co.za/legislation-homepage/legislation/a-new-dna-act/.
Republic of South Africa. (2002). Animal Identification Act (Act No. 6 of 2002). Government Gazette, Vol. 769 No. 23479, 3 June.
South African Police Service. 2011. Stock Theft Act, No. 57 of 1957. Juta Law, 46 (34535), Sep 30:1-2.
Tarekegne, C. (2021). Voices of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia: Questioning research and services? Academia Letters, Article 3688, 1-6.
Uys, G. (2017). How to catch a stock thief? June 6, Farmer’s Weekly. https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/farm-basics/how-to-livestock/catch-stock-thief/.
Van Sleeuwen, S.E.M., Ruiter, S and Menting, B. (2018). A time for crime: Temporal aspects of repeat offenders’ crime location choices. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 55(4), 38-568.
Webster, M. (2015). Livestock. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/livestock.
Wehmeier, S. (Editor). (2006). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wilde, A and Zaluska, E.D. (Sa). Revisiting Activity Theory within the Internet of Things. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/352915/1/InternetSci.pdf.
Wortley, R and Townsley, M. (2016). Environmental criminology and crime analysis. New York: Routledge.
Yrjö; E., Reijo, M and Raija-Leena, P. (1999). Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zantsi, S and Nkunjana, T. (2021). A review of possibilities for using animal tracking devices to mitigate stock theft in smallholder livestock farming systems in rural South Africa. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 49(1): 162-182.
Published
2022-04-01
How to Cite
Maluleke, W. (2022). Combating Stock Theft with Deoxyribonucleic Acid Samples and Innovative Technology in South Africa. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 5(4), 190-213. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v5i4.282
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