Exploration of Sexual Health Communication between Parents and their Children in Ubungo Municipality, Dar es Salaam Tanzania
Keywords:
Sexual Health Communication; Heterosexual; Sexual intercourse; Parents and Youth
Abstract
Purpose of the research was to investigate the communication and knowledge linkage between parents and adolescents on sexual health communication. The knowledge levels of sexual health of both parents and adolescents were assessed. Obstacles hindering this communication were explored. Talking cure linkage between parents and adolescents were carefully looked at who talks to who, when to communicate and where. 150 participants were selected at Ubungo Municipality in Dar es Salaam, using stratified sampling technique. A sample of randomly selected parents and their children aged 10-19. Parents were biological or guardians having experience of rearing the adolescents at a certain specific time and live with them. Data were collected by questionnaire technique, documentary reviews, interviews and focused group discussion. Few parents (34%) communicate sexual and reproductive health matters with their children. 59% of parents are not aware if their children have close friends of opposite sex and those who know 44% were told by other people, 15% catch SMSs/contraceptives/love letters, 10% just guess, 5% revealing themselves, 20% after dropping academically and 5% loose of respect. The study revealed some barriers hindering sexual health communication between parents and their children that, most parents escaping their role towards informing the adolescents’ on sexual related matters. Special interventions therefore are needed at adoption and implementation levels which should involve changing policies. There should be kind of collaboration between researchers and programme developers on the one side and on the other side stakeholders, government officials and target groups (children as recipients and parents as deliverers).
References
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Abdallah, Y. (1991). Zama za wayao. Tanzania: Benedictine Publications Ndanda.
ASHA. (2025). What is sexual health? American Sexual Health Association. Retrieved from, https://www.ashasexualhealth.org/sexual-health/.
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Bekele, D., Deksisa, A., Abera, W. & Megersa, G. (2022). Parental communication on sexual and reproductive health issues to their adolescents and affecting factors at Asella town, Ethiopia: A community-based, cross-sectional study. Retrieved from, https://reproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12978-022-01408-8.
Brickman, E., Rabinowtz, V. C., Karuza, J., Coates, D., Cohn, E. & Kidder, L. (1982). Four models of helping and coping. American Psychologist, 37(2), 368-384.
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Conner, M. & Norman, P. (2005). Predicting health behaviour: A social cognition approach. Midenhead: Open University Press.
Eliufoo, E., Mtoro, M. J., Godfrey, V., Bago, M., Kessy, I. P., Millanzi, W. & Nyundo, A. (2025). Prevalence and associated factors of early sexual initiation among female youth in Tanzania: A nationwide survey. BMC Public Health, 25, 812.
Fogarly, K. H. & Wyatt, C. H. (2009). Communicating with teens about sex: Facts, feelings, and recommendation. University of Frolida.
Galan, S. (2025). World population by age and region 2024. Retrieved from, https://www.statista.com/statistics/265759/world-population-by-age-and-region/.
Grossman, J. M., Jenkins, L. J. & Richer, A. M. (2018). Parents’ perspectives on family sexuality communication from middle school to high school. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 15(1):107.
Janz, N. K. & Becker, M. H. (1984). The health belief model: A decade later. HealthEducation Quarterly, 11:1, spring 1-47.
Joanne & Onwuegbuzie (2013). Toward a conceptualization of mixed methods phenomenological research. Retrieved from, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1558689813505358.
Kaaya, S. F., Mukoma, W., Flisher, A. J. & Klepp, K. I. (2002). School-based sexual health interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa: A review. Social Dynamics, 2002; 28: 64-88.
Kaiser, H. J. (2008). Are parents and teens talking about sex? A nationally representative survey of 15-17 year old youth in the United States about sexual health communication between teens and their parents. Advocates for Youth, Washington DC 20036.
Kirby, D., Laris, B. A. & Rolleri L. (2005). Impact of sex and HIV education programmes on sexual behaviours of youth in developing countries. Family Health International; Youth Research Working Paper No. 2; New York: USA.
Kiwara, A. (2001). HIV/AIDS in Adolescents: A Window of hope or mirage. Paper presented at the sixth Repoa.Research Workshop held at the White Sands Hotel; Dar es Salaam,TanzaniaApril 18-19, 2001.
Kosslyn, S. M. (2010). Psychology: The brain, the person, the world. Boston: USA. Allyn and Bacon.
Kwon, S. J. & Im, Y. M. (2021). Sexual health knowledge and needs among young adults with congenital heart disease. Retrieved from, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8099087/.
Lugoe, W. L. (1996). Self–restraining and condom use behavior: the HIV/AIDS prevention in Tanzania schools. Norway: University of Bergen.
Mandona, A. (1996). A study to determine the attitudes and practices of parents to sex education of their children. Lusaka: Zambia.
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Meyer, T. (1993). Wamakonde, maisha, mila na desturi za wanyakyusa. Tanzania: Motheco Publications, Peramiho.
Mkumbo, K. & Tangaraza, F. D. (2007). Parents views and attitudes towards school-based sex and relationships education in rural and urban Tanzania. Papers in Education and Development (PED), No, 27, pp. 171 – 188.
Mkumbo, K., Schaalma, H., Kaaya, S., Leerlooijer, J., Mbwambo, J. & Kilonzo, G. (2009). The application of intervention mapping in developing and implementing school-based sexuality and HIV/AIDS education in a developing country context: The case of Tanzania. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 2009; 37(Suppl. 2): 28-36.
Mmari, E. J. (2002). Communication between mothers and daughters regarding sexual and reproductive health issues in Hai District, Kilimanjaro. MA Dissertation of Public Health, University of Dar es Salaam.
Msoka, P. C., Mtesha, B., Lyidia Masika, L., Swai, I., Maro, R. & Emmanuel, N. (2025). HIV status disclosure and related factors among children aged 6–14 years living with HIV in Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania. Retrieved from, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09540121.2025.2459301?src=#abstract.
Mvuoni, R. (2006). Communication amongst parents and adolescents on sex education and practice of safer sex. MA Dissertation in development studies, University of Dar es Salaam.
Mwaruka, R. (1965). Masimulizi juu ya uzaramo. London: UK. Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
NACP. (2022). HIV - AIDS in Tanzania. Retrieved from, https://nacp.go.tz/hiv-aids-in-tanzania/.
Newcomer, S. F. & Udry, R. (1985). Sexual health education. Family planning perspectives: Guttmacher Institute, Vol. 17, No. 4, Jul.-Aug., 1985, pg 169 of 169-172.
Nice (2007). One to one interventions to reduce the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV, and to reduce the rate of under 18 conceptions, especially among vulnerable and at risk groups. A social Cognition approach. Midenhead: Open University Press.
Noe, M. T. N., Saw, Y. M., Soe, P. P., Khaing, M., Saw, T. N., Hamajima, N. & Win, H. H. (2018). Barriers between mothers and their adolescent daughters with regards to sexual and reproductive health communication in Taunggyi Township, Myanmar: What factors play important roles? Retrieved from, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208849.
Ott, K. M. & Winters, J. A. (2011). Sex and the seminary: preparing ministers for sexual health and justice. America Journal of Sexuality Education, vol. 6 issue 1; 55-74, 2011. West point, CT, USA.
Santrock, J. W. (2006). Educational psychology. New York: USA. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Sdorow, L. A. (1981). Psychology. North America: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Silverberg, C. (2010). Sexual health. Sexual health: HealthInsite Newsletter: Brisbane: Autralia.
Schnellansicht, J. D. & Artikle, A. (2010). Sexual health: HealthInsite Newsletter: Brisbane: Autralia.
Schofield, S. (1979). Sex education for the youth. London: UK. Cambridge University Press.
Sdorow, L. A. (1981). Psychology. North America: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Shukia, R. (2007). The relationship between perceived self-esteem and intention to use condom among female adolescents in selected secondary schools in dare es salaam region. MA Dissertation in Applied Social Psychology, University of Dar es Salaam.
TACAIDS. (2010). UNGAS reporting for 2010: Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar. Retrieved from, https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/country/documents/tanzania_2010_country_progress_report_en.pdf.
UN. (2022). High-level global conference on youth-inclusive peace process. Retrieved from, https://www.un.org/peacebuilding/policy-issues-and-partnerships/policy/youth billion.
UNICEF. (2020). UNAIDS – HIV and AIDS estimates 2020; HIV data handbook (NACP) 2018; 2019 HIV estimates dashboard of UNICEF. Retrieved from, https://www.unicef.org/tanzania/media/2436/file/HIV.Programme.FactSheet.pdf.
URT. (2009). Basic education statistics in Tanzania (BEST) 2005 – 2009 Dar es Salaam. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
U.S. (1986). Parent-child communication about sex. National Library of Medicine. National Institute of Health, 21(83) 517-27 Rockville, Bethesda MD, USA.
Whitaker, D. J., Miller, K. S., May, D. C. & Levin, M. L. (1999). Bridging the communication gaps. Family Planning Perspectives: 31(3): 117-121. Volume 31, No. 3, May/June 1999.
WHO. (2025). Sexual health. Retrieved from, https://www.who.int/health-topics/sexual-health#tab=tab_1.
WHO. (2024). Alarming decline in adolescent condom use, increased risk of sexually transmitted infections and unintended pregnancies, reveals new WHO report. Retrieved from, https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/29-08-2024-alarming-decline-in-adolescent-condom-use--increased-risk-of-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-unintended-pregnancies--reveals-new-who-report.
WHO. (1948). The ottawa charter health promotion model. World Health Organisation: USA.
Yowell, C. M. (1996). Risk of communication. early adolescent girls conversations with mothers and friends about sexuality. Early Adolescence, (17), 172 – 196, 1996.
Zakaria, M., Xu, J., Karim, F. & Cheng, F. (2019). Reproductive health communication between mother and adolescent daughter in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study. Retrieved from, https://reproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12978-019-0778-6.
Abdallah, Y. (1991). Zama za wayao. Tanzania: Benedictine Publications Ndanda.
ASHA. (2025). What is sexual health? American Sexual Health Association. Retrieved from, https://www.ashasexualhealth.org/sexual-health/.
Baron, A. R. (2009). Social psychology. Boston: New York. USA.
Bekele, D., Deksisa, A., Abera, W. & Megersa, G. (2022). Parental communication on sexual and reproductive health issues to their adolescents and affecting factors at Asella town, Ethiopia: A community-based, cross-sectional study. Retrieved from, https://reproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12978-022-01408-8.
Brickman, E., Rabinowtz, V. C., Karuza, J., Coates, D., Cohn, E. & Kidder, L. (1982). Four models of helping and coping. American Psychologist, 37(2), 368-384.
Cleveland Clinic. (2023). Adolescent-development. Retrieved from, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7060-adolescent-development.
Conner, M. & Norman, P. (2005). Predicting health behaviour: A social cognition approach. Midenhead: Open University Press.
Eliufoo, E., Mtoro, M. J., Godfrey, V., Bago, M., Kessy, I. P., Millanzi, W. & Nyundo, A. (2025). Prevalence and associated factors of early sexual initiation among female youth in Tanzania: A nationwide survey. BMC Public Health, 25, 812.
Fogarly, K. H. & Wyatt, C. H. (2009). Communicating with teens about sex: Facts, feelings, and recommendation. University of Frolida.
Galan, S. (2025). World population by age and region 2024. Retrieved from, https://www.statista.com/statistics/265759/world-population-by-age-and-region/.
Grossman, J. M., Jenkins, L. J. & Richer, A. M. (2018). Parents’ perspectives on family sexuality communication from middle school to high school. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 15(1):107.
Janz, N. K. & Becker, M. H. (1984). The health belief model: A decade later. HealthEducation Quarterly, 11:1, spring 1-47.
Joanne & Onwuegbuzie (2013). Toward a conceptualization of mixed methods phenomenological research. Retrieved from, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1558689813505358.
Kaaya, S. F., Mukoma, W., Flisher, A. J. & Klepp, K. I. (2002). School-based sexual health interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa: A review. Social Dynamics, 2002; 28: 64-88.
Kaiser, H. J. (2008). Are parents and teens talking about sex? A nationally representative survey of 15-17 year old youth in the United States about sexual health communication between teens and their parents. Advocates for Youth, Washington DC 20036.
Kirby, D., Laris, B. A. & Rolleri L. (2005). Impact of sex and HIV education programmes on sexual behaviours of youth in developing countries. Family Health International; Youth Research Working Paper No. 2; New York: USA.
Kiwara, A. (2001). HIV/AIDS in Adolescents: A Window of hope or mirage. Paper presented at the sixth Repoa.Research Workshop held at the White Sands Hotel; Dar es Salaam,TanzaniaApril 18-19, 2001.
Kosslyn, S. M. (2010). Psychology: The brain, the person, the world. Boston: USA. Allyn and Bacon.
Kwon, S. J. & Im, Y. M. (2021). Sexual health knowledge and needs among young adults with congenital heart disease. Retrieved from, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8099087/.
Lugoe, W. L. (1996). Self–restraining and condom use behavior: the HIV/AIDS prevention in Tanzania schools. Norway: University of Bergen.
Mandona, A. (1996). A study to determine the attitudes and practices of parents to sex education of their children. Lusaka: Zambia.
Mbunda, D. (1991). Traditional sex education in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania. The Margaret Sanga Centre.
Meyer, T. (1993). Wamakonde, maisha, mila na desturi za wanyakyusa. Tanzania: Motheco Publications, Peramiho.
Mkumbo, K. & Tangaraza, F. D. (2007). Parents views and attitudes towards school-based sex and relationships education in rural and urban Tanzania. Papers in Education and Development (PED), No, 27, pp. 171 – 188.
Mkumbo, K., Schaalma, H., Kaaya, S., Leerlooijer, J., Mbwambo, J. & Kilonzo, G. (2009). The application of intervention mapping in developing and implementing school-based sexuality and HIV/AIDS education in a developing country context: The case of Tanzania. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 2009; 37(Suppl. 2): 28-36.
Mmari, E. J. (2002). Communication between mothers and daughters regarding sexual and reproductive health issues in Hai District, Kilimanjaro. MA Dissertation of Public Health, University of Dar es Salaam.
Msoka, P. C., Mtesha, B., Lyidia Masika, L., Swai, I., Maro, R. & Emmanuel, N. (2025). HIV status disclosure and related factors among children aged 6–14 years living with HIV in Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania. Retrieved from, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09540121.2025.2459301?src=#abstract.
Mvuoni, R. (2006). Communication amongst parents and adolescents on sex education and practice of safer sex. MA Dissertation in development studies, University of Dar es Salaam.
Mwaruka, R. (1965). Masimulizi juu ya uzaramo. London: UK. Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
NACP. (2022). HIV - AIDS in Tanzania. Retrieved from, https://nacp.go.tz/hiv-aids-in-tanzania/.
Newcomer, S. F. & Udry, R. (1985). Sexual health education. Family planning perspectives: Guttmacher Institute, Vol. 17, No. 4, Jul.-Aug., 1985, pg 169 of 169-172.
Nice (2007). One to one interventions to reduce the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV, and to reduce the rate of under 18 conceptions, especially among vulnerable and at risk groups. A social Cognition approach. Midenhead: Open University Press.
Noe, M. T. N., Saw, Y. M., Soe, P. P., Khaing, M., Saw, T. N., Hamajima, N. & Win, H. H. (2018). Barriers between mothers and their adolescent daughters with regards to sexual and reproductive health communication in Taunggyi Township, Myanmar: What factors play important roles? Retrieved from, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208849.
Ott, K. M. & Winters, J. A. (2011). Sex and the seminary: preparing ministers for sexual health and justice. America Journal of Sexuality Education, vol. 6 issue 1; 55-74, 2011. West point, CT, USA.
Santrock, J. W. (2006). Educational psychology. New York: USA. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Sdorow, L. A. (1981). Psychology. North America: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Silverberg, C. (2010). Sexual health. Sexual health: HealthInsite Newsletter: Brisbane: Autralia.
Schnellansicht, J. D. & Artikle, A. (2010). Sexual health: HealthInsite Newsletter: Brisbane: Autralia.
Schofield, S. (1979). Sex education for the youth. London: UK. Cambridge University Press.
Sdorow, L. A. (1981). Psychology. North America: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Shukia, R. (2007). The relationship between perceived self-esteem and intention to use condom among female adolescents in selected secondary schools in dare es salaam region. MA Dissertation in Applied Social Psychology, University of Dar es Salaam.
TACAIDS. (2010). UNGAS reporting for 2010: Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar. Retrieved from, https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/country/documents/tanzania_2010_country_progress_report_en.pdf.
UN. (2022). High-level global conference on youth-inclusive peace process. Retrieved from, https://www.un.org/peacebuilding/policy-issues-and-partnerships/policy/youth billion.
UNICEF. (2020). UNAIDS – HIV and AIDS estimates 2020; HIV data handbook (NACP) 2018; 2019 HIV estimates dashboard of UNICEF. Retrieved from, https://www.unicef.org/tanzania/media/2436/file/HIV.Programme.FactSheet.pdf.
URT. (2009). Basic education statistics in Tanzania (BEST) 2005 – 2009 Dar es Salaam. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
U.S. (1986). Parent-child communication about sex. National Library of Medicine. National Institute of Health, 21(83) 517-27 Rockville, Bethesda MD, USA.
Whitaker, D. J., Miller, K. S., May, D. C. & Levin, M. L. (1999). Bridging the communication gaps. Family Planning Perspectives: 31(3): 117-121. Volume 31, No. 3, May/June 1999.
WHO. (2025). Sexual health. Retrieved from, https://www.who.int/health-topics/sexual-health#tab=tab_1.
WHO. (2024). Alarming decline in adolescent condom use, increased risk of sexually transmitted infections and unintended pregnancies, reveals new WHO report. Retrieved from, https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/29-08-2024-alarming-decline-in-adolescent-condom-use--increased-risk-of-sexually-transmitted-infections-and-unintended-pregnancies--reveals-new-who-report.
WHO. (1948). The ottawa charter health promotion model. World Health Organisation: USA.
Yowell, C. M. (1996). Risk of communication. early adolescent girls conversations with mothers and friends about sexuality. Early Adolescence, (17), 172 – 196, 1996.
Zakaria, M., Xu, J., Karim, F. & Cheng, F. (2019). Reproductive health communication between mother and adolescent daughter in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study. Retrieved from, https://reproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12978-019-0778-6.
Published
2025-08-29
How to Cite
Mitula, M. G. (2025). Exploration of Sexual Health Communication between Parents and their Children in Ubungo Municipality, Dar es Salaam Tanzania. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 8(9), 430-466. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v8i9.3021
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