What Has Driven Increased Demand for Higher Education in West Africa Economic and Monetary Union Countries Between the 1990s and the Turn of the 2000s?
Keywords:
Institutions’ Supply; Institutions’ Accessibility; Costs’ Affordability; Demand Drivers; Higher Education; Increased Demand; Public Policy; WAEMU
Abstract
Literature cumulated evidence indicating an increased demand for higher education over the period 1990s and at the turn of 2000s in West Africa Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) countries, questioning the mainstream assumption that increased costs of higher education coupled with low revenues of students’ families, through providing deterrence to prospective students, results in decreased demand in higher education. It becomes, therefore, puzzling to observe that despite existence of such barriers as increased enrolment costs and low student family revenues, these countries have, nonetheless, experienced increased demand for higher education. This observation prompted the question: What has driven increased demand for higher education in West Africa Economic and Monetary Union countries between the 1990s and the turn of the 2000s? The paper use Process Tracing to investigate higher education institutions supply, accessibility, and affordability, and downplays the relevance of mainstream rational choice theories, as they are too often pressed into service as providing the relevant frameworks for explaining demand for higher education, while advocating the relevance of the public policy-driven model as the conceptual framework accounting for the observed increase.
References
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Agboola & Ofoegbu, Access to University Education in Nigeria: A Review 27th July, 2010
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Arsen, D., Plank, D, & Sykes, G. (1999), School Choice Policies in Michigan: The Rules Matter. Michigan State University, 2004
Atarah & Peprah, (2013) The Role of Marketing Communication in Student Enrolment in private universities in Ghana International Journal Corner Vol. 2(5) pp. 268-278
Baharun, R.(2008). A study of factors influencing the selection of a higher education institution. UNITAR E-JOURNAL Vol. 4, No. 2, June 2008
Beach, D.,2016. "It's all about mechanisms – what process-tracing case studies should be tracing," New Political Economy, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 21(5), pages 463-472, September.
Beach, D., & Pedersen (2019) Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines University of Michigan Press 2nd Edition
Benjamin, C., Kerns, C.M., Settipani, C.A., &Brodman, D.M. (2011) History of cognitive-behavioral therapy in youth. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 20(2):179-89
Blaug, (1985) Economic Theory in Retrospective Cambridge University Press 4th Edition.
Bloom, D., Canning,D., Chan, K., & Luca, D. L. Higher Education and Economic Growth in Africa International Journal of African Higher Education August 2014
Boadu, M.C. (PhD, MCiPD) The Increasing Demand for High Education in Ghana and Female Participation Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS) 14(1): 10-19
Briggs, S., & Wilson, A. (2007). Which university? A study of the influence of cost and information factors on Scottish undergraduate choice. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 29(1), 57-72.
Brown, Byron (1992). "Why Governments Run Schools." Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 11(4), pages 287-300
Brunello, G.& Comi, S. (2004) “Education and Earnings Growth: Evidence from 11 European Countries,” Economics of Education Review 23, no. 1: pp 75-83.
Chaubey et al. (2011) Factors influencing student’s choice of institutions for higher learning! An empirical study Indira Management Review
Daun-Barnett, N. & Edward P. St. John (2024) Public Policy and Higher Education: Reframing Strategies for Preparation, Access, and College Success Routledge November 15
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23750970 (accessed 24 May 2025)
Dawes, P.L. & Brown, J. (2002), “Determinants of awareness, consideration, and choice set size in university choice”, Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 49-75.
Duksel, Y., Nao, M., Wingrove, P., Zuaro, B (2024) Macro-level language policy and planning to promote and maintain English taught programmes in Turkish higher education: a Process Tracing perspective Current Issues in Language Planning
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Hanushek, E.A. (1981) Education policy research—An industry perspective Economics of Education Review vol. 1, issue 2, 193-223
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Hemsley-Brown & Oplatka (2015) University choice: what do we know, what don’t we know and what do we still need to find out? International Journal of Educational
Hossler, D. & Simms, K. (1987) Gallagher Studying Student College Choice: A Three-Phase Model and the Implications for Policymakers College and University, v62 n3 p207-21 1987
Kallio, R. E. (1995). Factors influencing the college choice decisions of graduate students. Research in Higher Education, 36(1), 109-124.
Kehdinga, G. (2022) Analysis of Enrolment Rate in Private Institutions in West African Countries Advances in Dynamical Systems and Applications., Volume 17, Number 2, pp. 523-538
Kim, J.K., & Gasman, M. (2011) In search of a “good college”: Decisions and determinations behind Asian American students’ college choice. Journal of College Student Development, 52(6), 706– 728
Khon, M.G. Manski, C.F., & Mundel, D.S. (1976) An empirical investigation for factors which influence college-going behavior Economics of Education Review Volume 1, Issue 2, Pages 193-223
Korstange, K., Blum, S.D., & Fernendze, O.I.. (2021) A Theory of Public Higher Education June 2021 Soundings An Interdisciplinary Journal 104(2-3):141
Kruss, G., McGrath,S., Petersen,I., & Gastrow M. (2015) Higher education and economic development: The importance of building technological capabilities International Journal of Educational Development July 2015
Luthans, F. and Doh, J. (2012) International Management: Culture, Strategy, and Behavior. McGraw-Hill,New York
Mathis, R. L., & Jackson, J. H. (2011). Human Resource Management (13th ed.). Boston, MA: West-South
Malhotra, N.K. (2008) Review of Marketing Research M.E.Sharpe Armonk, New York London, England
Mbaye, A.A. & Gueye, F. (2018) Labor Markets and Jobs in West Africa June 2018 Working Paper Series N° 297, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
Mbawuni, J. & Nimako, S.G. (2015) Modelling Job-related and Personality Predictors of Intention to Pursue Accounting Careers among Undergraduate Students in Ghana World Journal of Education
Menges, R. J., & Austin, A. E. (2001). Teaching in Higher Education. In V. Richardson. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (pp. 1123- ...13 pages
Mngomezulu B. (2014) Selected Themes in African Political Studies The Political Foundations of the Development of Higher Education in Africa (pp.125-137) June 2014
Ming, J. S. K. (2010) Institutional Factors Influencing Students’ College Choice Decision in Malaysia: A Conceptual Framework International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 1 No. 3
Nabaho, L. Turyasingura, W., Kiiza, A.K., Andaman, F., Beinebyabo, A. (2020) Quality Assurance of Higher Education Governance and Management: An Exploration of the Minimum Imperative for the Envisioned African Common Higher Education Space Higher Learning Research Communications, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 38–52.
Oketch, M. (2014) Human capital theory and educational policy strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa. A Retrospective Overview International Journal of Educational development in africa Vol. 1 (1) pp. 96–107
Otto, H.-U. & Ziegler, H. (2006) Capabilities and Education Social Work & Society, Volume 4, Issue 2
Okyireh, R.O. Adobea Okyireh, M.A. & Adu, I.N. (2020) Determinants of students’ choice of higher education in private university, Ghana British Journal of Marketing Studies Vol. 8 No. 2
Pickering, M. (2022) Kant on Why Criminal Offenders Must Be Punished
Southern Journal of Philosophy 60 (4):637-663
Robeyns, I. (2006) The Capability Approach in Practice The Journal of Political Philosophy: Volume 14, Number 3, pp. 351–376
Robeyns, I.(2005) The Capability Approach: a theoretical survey Pages 93-117 Journal of Human Development Vol. 6, No. 1
Salihu, M.J. (2020) The Demograhic shift s in West African Countries: Implications for Access to Higher Education in Nigeria Asia Proceedings of Social Sciences 6(3)
Segbenya, M.,Oduro, G.K.T, Peniana, F. & Ghansah, K.(2019)Proximity and choice of College of Distance Education (CoDE) of the University of Cape Coast for further studies”, International Journal of Educational Management, 33(5) 1012-1034.
Sen, A.(1987). "Freedom of Choice: Concept and Content," WIDER Working Paper Series wp-1987-025, World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER).
Robeyns, I. (2007) The Capability Approach: a theoretical survey Pages 93-117 | Published online: 22 Jan 2007
Sibagariang, S.A., Milfayetti, S., Zainuddin, Z., &Lubis, Z. (2023) Human Capital in Higher Education (A Theoretical and Empirical Review ") EDUTEC The Journal of Education and Technology Volume 6 Number 4 .
Schultz, T.W. (1961) “Investment in Human Capital,” The American Economic Review 51, no. 1: 1-17.
Tefera, B. (2016). Teacher’s Job Satisfaction and Its Relationship with Organizational Commitment in Ethiopian Primary Schools: Focus on Primary Schools of Bonga Town. European Journal of Scientific Research, 12, 380-401.
Taylor & Francis (2011) on behalf of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia Higher Education Research & Development 30(5):573-584
The World Declaration on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs. World Conference on Education for All (1990).
Tirivanhu,P.et al. (2018) Assessing evaluation education in African tertiary education institutions: opportunities and reflections. South African Journal of Higher Education 32 (4), 229-44
Thomas, O., Tudor, M., Pennell, C., (2024) Public inquiries into conflict and security: Scandals, archives, and the politics of epistemology. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 26(4), pp. 1080-1099.
Unterhalter, E. (2003) Review: Crossing Disciplinary Boundaries: The Potential of Sen's Capability Approach for Sociologists of Education British Journal of Sociology of Education Vol. 24, pp. 665-669 (5 pages)
Unterhalter, E.(2003); The Capabilities Approach and Gendered Education: An Examination of South African Complexities Volume 1, Issue 1
Varghese, N. V. (2004). Private Higher Education in Africa. Geneva: International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), UNESCO.
Wagner, K., & Fard, P. Y. (2009). Factors influencing Malaysian students' intention to study at a higher educational institution. MSA-Management science journal Volume: 3, Issue:3, Year: 2024 pp. 58-87
Yang, C-C. (2017) Is Higher Education Expansion Related to Increasing Unemployment Rates? A Comparative Analysis of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan International Journal of Chinese Education
Other references
African Development Fund, Multinational, Support for Higher Education in WAEMU countries Appraisal, Report Department of Social Development, Central and West Regions, MAY 2006
List of AUF member Institutions in French-speaking Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean
Study on higher education in WAEMU countries PHASE 1 SUMMARY AND SUPPORT OPTIONS for a new vision of higher education: Integration, Relevance and Quality Final report November 2004
Trends in Tertiary Education: Sub-Saharan Africa UIS Fact Sheet, December 2010, No 10
Adeniyi,O., Ajayi, P.I. & Adedeji, A. A. (2020) Education and inclusive growth in West Africa Journal of Economics and Development
Agboola & Ofoegbu,( 2010) THE DEMOGRAPHIC SHIFTS IN WEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES: IMPLICATIONS FOR ACCESS TO HIGHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA Asia Proceedings of Social Sciences 6(3)
Agboola & Ofoegbu, Access to University Education in Nigeria: A Review 27th July, 2010
Ajake, U.E.; Omori, A. E.; Essien, M. (2011) Sustainable Development in Higher Education: Current Practice and Future Development: A Case Study of University of Calabar-Nigeria African Higher Education Review, v4 p87-110
Ajake, U.E., Oden, S.N. Bisong, N. .N. (2014) Influence of Child Neglect on Self-concept of Senior Secondary School Students in Cross River State, Nigeria Journal of Educational and Social Research MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy Vol. 4 No.3
Arsen, D., Plank, D, & Sykes, G. (1999), School Choice Policies in Michigan: The Rules Matter. Michigan State University, 2004
Atarah & Peprah, (2013) The Role of Marketing Communication in Student Enrolment in private universities in Ghana International Journal Corner Vol. 2(5) pp. 268-278
Baharun, R.(2008). A study of factors influencing the selection of a higher education institution. UNITAR E-JOURNAL Vol. 4, No. 2, June 2008
Beach, D.,2016. "It's all about mechanisms – what process-tracing case studies should be tracing," New Political Economy, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 21(5), pages 463-472, September.
Beach, D., & Pedersen (2019) Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines University of Michigan Press 2nd Edition
Benjamin, C., Kerns, C.M., Settipani, C.A., &Brodman, D.M. (2011) History of cognitive-behavioral therapy in youth. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 20(2):179-89
Blaug, (1985) Economic Theory in Retrospective Cambridge University Press 4th Edition.
Bloom, D., Canning,D., Chan, K., & Luca, D. L. Higher Education and Economic Growth in Africa International Journal of African Higher Education August 2014
Boadu, M.C. (PhD, MCiPD) The Increasing Demand for High Education in Ghana and Female Participation Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS) 14(1): 10-19
Briggs, S., & Wilson, A. (2007). Which university? A study of the influence of cost and information factors on Scottish undergraduate choice. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 29(1), 57-72.
Brown, Byron (1992). "Why Governments Run Schools." Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 11(4), pages 287-300
Brunello, G.& Comi, S. (2004) “Education and Earnings Growth: Evidence from 11 European Countries,” Economics of Education Review 23, no. 1: pp 75-83.
Chaubey et al. (2011) Factors influencing student’s choice of institutions for higher learning! An empirical study Indira Management Review
Daun-Barnett, N. & Edward P. St. John (2024) Public Policy and Higher Education: Reframing Strategies for Preparation, Access, and College Success Routledge November 15
David Plank Understanding the Demand for Schooling January 2005
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23750970 (accessed 24 May 2025)
Dawes, P.L. & Brown, J. (2002), “Determinants of awareness, consideration, and choice set size in university choice”, Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 49-75.
Duksel, Y., Nao, M., Wingrove, P., Zuaro, B (2024) Macro-level language policy and planning to promote and maintain English taught programmes in Turkish higher education: a Process Tracing perspective Current Issues in Language Planning
Education for All 2000-2015: achievements and challenges; EFA global monitoring report, 2015
Fallows, S. & Steven, C. (2000) “Building Employability Skills into the Higher Education Curriculum: A University-Wide Initiative,” Education Training 42, no. 2: 75-83
Fomunyam (2022) Advances in Dynamical Systems and Applications. Research India Publications Volume 17, Number 2, pp. 523-538
Forojalla, S. B. (1993) Educational planning for development St. Martin's Press, - 384 pages
Fosu, F. F., & Poku, K. (2014). Exploring the factors that influence students’ choice of higher education in Ghana. European Journal of Business and Management, 6(28), 209-220.
Gary S. Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 3rd ed.
Haigh, M. (2011) Integral vision: A multi-perspective approach to the recognition of graduate attributes Higher Education Research & Development
Hanushek, E.A. (1981) Education policy research—An industry perspective Economics of Education Review vol. 1, issue 2, 193-223
Haveman & Wolfe (1995) The Determinants of Children Attainments: A Review of Methods and Findings Journal of Economic Literature
Hemsley-Brown & Oplatka (2015) University choice: what do we know, what don’t we know and what do we still need to find out? International Journal of Educational
Hossler, D. & Simms, K. (1987) Gallagher Studying Student College Choice: A Three-Phase Model and the Implications for Policymakers College and University, v62 n3 p207-21 1987
Kallio, R. E. (1995). Factors influencing the college choice decisions of graduate students. Research in Higher Education, 36(1), 109-124.
Kehdinga, G. (2022) Analysis of Enrolment Rate in Private Institutions in West African Countries Advances in Dynamical Systems and Applications., Volume 17, Number 2, pp. 523-538
Kim, J.K., & Gasman, M. (2011) In search of a “good college”: Decisions and determinations behind Asian American students’ college choice. Journal of College Student Development, 52(6), 706– 728
Khon, M.G. Manski, C.F., & Mundel, D.S. (1976) An empirical investigation for factors which influence college-going behavior Economics of Education Review Volume 1, Issue 2, Pages 193-223
Korstange, K., Blum, S.D., & Fernendze, O.I.. (2021) A Theory of Public Higher Education June 2021 Soundings An Interdisciplinary Journal 104(2-3):141
Kruss, G., McGrath,S., Petersen,I., & Gastrow M. (2015) Higher education and economic development: The importance of building technological capabilities International Journal of Educational Development July 2015
Luthans, F. and Doh, J. (2012) International Management: Culture, Strategy, and Behavior. McGraw-Hill,New York
Mathis, R. L., & Jackson, J. H. (2011). Human Resource Management (13th ed.). Boston, MA: West-South
Malhotra, N.K. (2008) Review of Marketing Research M.E.Sharpe Armonk, New York London, England
Mbaye, A.A. & Gueye, F. (2018) Labor Markets and Jobs in West Africa June 2018 Working Paper Series N° 297, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
Mbawuni, J. & Nimako, S.G. (2015) Modelling Job-related and Personality Predictors of Intention to Pursue Accounting Careers among Undergraduate Students in Ghana World Journal of Education
Menges, R. J., & Austin, A. E. (2001). Teaching in Higher Education. In V. Richardson. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (pp. 1123- ...13 pages
Mngomezulu B. (2014) Selected Themes in African Political Studies The Political Foundations of the Development of Higher Education in Africa (pp.125-137) June 2014
Ming, J. S. K. (2010) Institutional Factors Influencing Students’ College Choice Decision in Malaysia: A Conceptual Framework International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 1 No. 3
Nabaho, L. Turyasingura, W., Kiiza, A.K., Andaman, F., Beinebyabo, A. (2020) Quality Assurance of Higher Education Governance and Management: An Exploration of the Minimum Imperative for the Envisioned African Common Higher Education Space Higher Learning Research Communications, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 38–52.
Oketch, M. (2014) Human capital theory and educational policy strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa. A Retrospective Overview International Journal of Educational development in africa Vol. 1 (1) pp. 96–107
Otto, H.-U. & Ziegler, H. (2006) Capabilities and Education Social Work & Society, Volume 4, Issue 2
Okyireh, R.O. Adobea Okyireh, M.A. & Adu, I.N. (2020) Determinants of students’ choice of higher education in private university, Ghana British Journal of Marketing Studies Vol. 8 No. 2
Pickering, M. (2022) Kant on Why Criminal Offenders Must Be Punished
Southern Journal of Philosophy 60 (4):637-663
Robeyns, I. (2006) The Capability Approach in Practice The Journal of Political Philosophy: Volume 14, Number 3, pp. 351–376
Robeyns, I.(2005) The Capability Approach: a theoretical survey Pages 93-117 Journal of Human Development Vol. 6, No. 1
Salihu, M.J. (2020) The Demograhic shift s in West African Countries: Implications for Access to Higher Education in Nigeria Asia Proceedings of Social Sciences 6(3)
Segbenya, M.,Oduro, G.K.T, Peniana, F. & Ghansah, K.(2019)Proximity and choice of College of Distance Education (CoDE) of the University of Cape Coast for further studies”, International Journal of Educational Management, 33(5) 1012-1034.
Sen, A.(1987). "Freedom of Choice: Concept and Content," WIDER Working Paper Series wp-1987-025, World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER).
Robeyns, I. (2007) The Capability Approach: a theoretical survey Pages 93-117 | Published online: 22 Jan 2007
Sibagariang, S.A., Milfayetti, S., Zainuddin, Z., &Lubis, Z. (2023) Human Capital in Higher Education (A Theoretical and Empirical Review ") EDUTEC The Journal of Education and Technology Volume 6 Number 4 .
Schultz, T.W. (1961) “Investment in Human Capital,” The American Economic Review 51, no. 1: 1-17.
Tefera, B. (2016). Teacher’s Job Satisfaction and Its Relationship with Organizational Commitment in Ethiopian Primary Schools: Focus on Primary Schools of Bonga Town. European Journal of Scientific Research, 12, 380-401.
Taylor & Francis (2011) on behalf of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia Higher Education Research & Development 30(5):573-584
The World Declaration on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs. World Conference on Education for All (1990).
Tirivanhu,P.et al. (2018) Assessing evaluation education in African tertiary education institutions: opportunities and reflections. South African Journal of Higher Education 32 (4), 229-44
Thomas, O., Tudor, M., Pennell, C., (2024) Public inquiries into conflict and security: Scandals, archives, and the politics of epistemology. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 26(4), pp. 1080-1099.
Unterhalter, E. (2003) Review: Crossing Disciplinary Boundaries: The Potential of Sen's Capability Approach for Sociologists of Education British Journal of Sociology of Education Vol. 24, pp. 665-669 (5 pages)
Unterhalter, E.(2003); The Capabilities Approach and Gendered Education: An Examination of South African Complexities Volume 1, Issue 1
Varghese, N. V. (2004). Private Higher Education in Africa. Geneva: International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), UNESCO.
Wagner, K., & Fard, P. Y. (2009). Factors influencing Malaysian students' intention to study at a higher educational institution. MSA-Management science journal Volume: 3, Issue:3, Year: 2024 pp. 58-87
Yang, C-C. (2017) Is Higher Education Expansion Related to Increasing Unemployment Rates? A Comparative Analysis of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan International Journal of Chinese Education
Other references
African Development Fund, Multinational, Support for Higher Education in WAEMU countries Appraisal, Report Department of Social Development, Central and West Regions, MAY 2006
List of AUF member Institutions in French-speaking Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean
Study on higher education in WAEMU countries PHASE 1 SUMMARY AND SUPPORT OPTIONS for a new vision of higher education: Integration, Relevance and Quality Final report November 2004
Trends in Tertiary Education: Sub-Saharan Africa UIS Fact Sheet, December 2010, No 10
Published
2025-07-13
How to Cite
Tchassante-Tchedre, N. (2025). What Has Driven Increased Demand for Higher Education in West Africa Economic and Monetary Union Countries Between the 1990s and the Turn of the 2000s?. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 8(7), 467-484. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v8i7.2870
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