An Empirical Analysis of Conventional and Game Based Pedagogical Approaches on Learner Motivation and Engagement

Aryann Khokha

doi:10.47814/ijssrr.v8i7.2812

Aryann Khokha High School Student, Shri Ram School, Aravali, India

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v8i7.2812

Keywords: Gamification; Engagement; Learning; Motivation; Conventional Learning; Education; Game Based Learning

Abstract

Despite India’s pressing educational deficits, with over 25% of adolescents lacking basic literacy and numeracy, empirical studies on instructional effectiveness remain limited. This study evaluates how game-based learning (GBL) and conventional pedagogies influence motivation and engagement among Indian students. By isolating their differential impacts, the research aims to inform scalable, evidence-based strategies for improving science learning outcomes in resource-constrained classrooms. The findings are positioned to advance both academic literature and policy dialogue on pedagogical reform in non-Western, digitally evolving education systems. Employing a purposive sampling methodology across 93 government schools, the study analyzed 1,816 valid participants aged 13-18 years following systematic exclusion criteria. Data collection utilized linguistically adapted, psychometrically validated instruments including the Student Motivation Scale and Student Engagement Instrument, alongside custom-developed conventional and game-based learning preference assessments. Statistical analyses revealed robust positive correlations between game-based learning preferences and both student motivation (r = 0.67, p < 0.001) and engagement (r = 0.71, p < 0.001). Multiple regression models demonstrated that GBL preferences accounted for 45% of variance in motivation (R² = 0.45) and 50% of variance in engagement (R² = 0.50), with standardized beta coefficients of 0.67 and 0.70 respectively. Conversely, conventional learning preferences showed negligible correlations with motivational outcomes (r = -0.02, p = 0.36). Significant age-related patterns emerged, with younger adolescents (13-15 years) demonstrating substantially higher GBL preferences and motivation levels compared to older peers. These findings provide compelling empirical support for integrating game-based pedagogical strategies in under-resourced educational environments.

References

Key Barriers to Educational Technology Adoption in the Developing World « Educational Technology Debate. (2024). Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://edutechdebate.org/2014- ict4edu-trends/5-key-barriers-to-educational-technology-adoption-in-the-developing-world/

Abedi, B., Reardon, S., Winters, K. C., & Lee, S. (2019). Long-Term Outcome of a Brief Intervention to Address Adolescent Drug Abuse in a School Setting. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 28(2), 132–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2019.1623146

Agustina, I., Joshua, W., Julanos, J., & Niva, M. (2024). The Impact of Implementing Game- Based Learning on Student Motivation and Engagement. Journal Emerging Technologies in Education, 2(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.70177/jete.v2i3.1069

Al-Khayat, M. R., Gargash, M. U., & Atiq, A. F. (2023). The Effectiveness of Game-based Learning in Enhancing Students’ Motivation and Cognitive Skills. Journal of Education and Teaching Methods, 2(3), 50-62, Article 3. Retrieved from https://gprjournals.org/journals/index.php/jetm/article/view/199

Alsofyani, M. M. (2022). Eleven game elements for female nonadaptive gamification courses. Heliyon, 9(1), e12699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12699

Anderson, J. R., Betts, S., Ferris, J. L., & Fincham, J. M. (2011). Cognitive and metacognitive activity in mathematical problem solving: Prefrontal and parietal patterns. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 11(1), 52–67. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-010-0011-0

Apriani, R. R., Apriani, R., & Prastiawan, A. (2019). Impact of game-based learning on learning motivation high school students (pp. 602–606). https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-19.2019.148

ASER 2022 - ASER: Annual Status of Education Report. (2022). https://Asercentre.Org/.Retrieved June 21, 2025, from https://asercentre.org/aser-2022/

ASER 2024 - ASER: Annual Status of Education Report. (2024). https://Asercentre.Org/.Retrieved June 20, 2025, from https://asercentre.org/aser-2024/

Bailey, D. H., Duncan, G. J., Cunha, F., Foorman, B. R., & Yeager, D. S. (2020). Persistence and

Fade-Out of Educational-Intervention Effects: Mechanisms and Potential Solutions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(2), 55–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620915848

Baker, R. S., Richey, J. E., Zhang, J., Karumbaiah, S., Andres-Bray, J. M., Nguyen, H. A., Andres, J. M. A. L., & McLaren, B. M. (2025). Gaming the system mediates the relationship between gender and learning outcomes in a digital learning game. Instructional Science, 53(2), 203–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-024-09679-3

Bin Dayel, S., Alqahtani, N., Alshehri, F. S., Alshahrani, M. M., & Alshahrani, A. A. (2018). Psychometrics of a motivation questionnaire. International Journal of Medical Education, 9, 309–315. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.5bec.81cf

Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Company. Inc., 1956. 207 Pp. Retrieved from: https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/PPP242/Benjamin%20S.%20Bloom%20%20Taxonomy%20of%20Educational%20Objectives%2C%20Handbook%201_%20Cognitive%20Domain-Addison%20Wesley%20Publishing%20Company%20%281956%29.pdf

Bransford, J. & National Research Council (Eds.). (2004). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed., 9. print). National Academy Press.

Bransford, J., National Research Council (U.S.), & National Research Council (U.S.) (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed). National Academy Press.

Bransford, John D., Ann L. Brown, and Rodney R. Cocking. How people learn. Vol. 11. Washington, DC: National academy press, 2000. Retrieved from: https://www.csun.edu/~SB4310/How%20People%20Learn.pdf

Caponetto, I., Earp, J., & Ott, M. (2014, October). Gamification and education: A literature review. In European conference on games based learning (Vol. 1, p. 50).

Chang, E., Lee, A., Byeon, E., & Lee, S. M. (2015). Role of motivation in the relation between perfectionism and academic burnout in Korean students. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 221–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.027

Chang, K.-C., Hsu, Y.-T., Cheng, Y.-S., & Kuo, N.-T. (2019). How work engagement influences relationship quality: the roles of work motivation and perceived service guarantee strength. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 1–25. https://doi:10.1080/14783363.2019.1700107

Ciani, K. D., Sheldon, K. M., Hilpert, J. C., & Easter, M. A. (2011). Antecedents and trajectories of achievement goals: A self‐determination theory perspective. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 223–243. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709910X517399

Collaborators, Q. (2024, August 27). Cross-Cultural Research: Methods, Challenges, & Key Findings. QuestionPro. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/cross-cultural-research/ Conducting Research Across Cultures: Overcoming Drawbacks and Obstacles. (2001, January 1).ALNAP. https://alnap.org/help-library/resources/conducting-research-across-cultures- overcoming-drawbacks-and-obstacles/

Connolly, T. M., Boyle, E. A., MacArthur, E., Hainey, T., & Boyle, J. M. (2012). A systematic literature review of empirical evidence on computer games and serious games. Computers & Education, 59(2), 661–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.03.004

Cruchinho, P., López-Franco, M. D., Capelas, M. L., Almeida, S., Bennett, P. M., Silva, M. M. da, Teixeira, G., Nunes, E., Lucas, P., & Gaspar, F. (2024). Translation, Cross-Cultural Adaptation, and Validation of Measurement Instruments: A Practical Guideline for Novice Researchers. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 17, 2701–2728. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S419714

Dan, N. N., Trung, L. T. B. T., Nga, N. T., & Dung, T. M. (2024). Digital game-based learning in mathematics education at primary school level: A systematic literature review. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 20(4), em2423. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14377

Darling-Hammond, L., & Snyder, J. (2000). Authentic assessment of teaching in context. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(5), 523–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742- 051X(00)00015-9

De Freitas, S., & Oliver, M. (2006). How can exploratory learning with games and simulations within the curriculum be most effectively evaluated? Computers & Education, 46(3), 249–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.007

De Houwer, J., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Moors, A. (2013). What is learning? On the nature and merits of a functional definition of learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(4), 631–642. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0386-3

Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). From Game Design Elements to Gamefulness: Defining Gamification. In Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments, MindTrek 2011 (Vol. 11, p. 15). https://doi.org/10.1145/2181037.2181040

Dicheva, D., & Dichev, C. (2015, October). Gamification in education: Where are we in 2015?. In E-learn: World conference on E-learning in corporate, government, healthcare, and higher education (pp. 1445-1454). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved from: https://www.learntechlib.org/p/152186/?nl=1

Domjan, M. (2013). Conditioning and Learning. In Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions (pp.

–471). Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_633

Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of educational research, 74(1), 59-109.

Frey, B. S. (1992). Tertium Datur: Pricing, Regulating and Intrinsic Motivation. Kyklos, 45(2), 161–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.1992.tb02112.x

Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. Computers in entertainment (CIE), 1(1), 20-20.

Ghoulam, K., Bouikhalene, B., Babori, A., & Falih, N. (2024). Gamification in E-learning: Bridging Educational Gaps in Developing Countries. International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning (iJAC), 17(1), pp. 85–95. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v17i1.47631

Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, T. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2004). A five-dimensional framework for authentic assessment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(3), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504676

Hall, B. K. (2003). Unlocking the Black Box between Genotype and Phenotype: Cell Condensations as Morphogenetic (modular) Units. Biology and Philosophy, 18(2), 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023984018531

Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. (2014). Does Gamification Work? -- A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification. 2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 3025–3034. https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2014.377

Hamari, J., Shernoff, D. J., Rowe, E., Coller, B., Asbell-Clarke, J., & Edwards, T. (2016). Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on engagement, flow and immersion in game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.045

Harmon, J. L. (2016). Differences in motivation and game scores between middle school students completing digital game-based learning tasks with and without supports of autonomy and structure. Liberty University.

Kanthan, R., & Senger, J. L. (2011). The impact of specially designed digital games-based learning in undergraduate pathology and medical education. Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine, 135(1), 135-142.

Kapp, K. M. (2013). The Gamification of Learning and Instruction Fieldbook: Ideas into Practice. John Wiley & Sons.

Kim J, Castelli DM. Effects of Gamification on Behavioral Change in Education: A Meta- Analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Mar 29;18(7):3550. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073550

Kim, S. (2013). Neuroscientific Model of Motivational Process. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. https://doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00098

Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives (Vol. 2). David McKay Company.

Lachman, S. J. (1997). Learning is a Process: Toward an Improved Definition of Learning. The Journal of Psychology, 131(5), 477–480. https://doi:10.1080/00223989709603535

Lakerveld, J., Palmeira, A. L., Van Duinkerken, E., Whitelock, V., Peyrot, M., & Nouwen, A.(2020). Motivation: Key to a healthy lifestyle in people with diabetes? Current and emerging knowledge and applications. Diabetic Medicine, 37(3), 464–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.14228

Lan Dinh Thi (2025). Game-based learning in improving student engagement. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(5). Retrieved June 27, 2025, from https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijriss/articles/game-based-learning-in-improving-student- engagement/ doi: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000397

Landers, R. N. (2014). Developing a theory of gamified learning: Linking serious games and gamification of learning. Simulation & gaming, 45(6), 752-768.

Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning. In Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 41, pp. 85-139). Academic Press.

Mayer, R. E. (2002). Rote Versus Meaningful Learning. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 226–232. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_4

McLaren, B. M., Richey, J. E., Nguyen, H. A., & Mogessie, M. (2022, January). A digital learning game for mathematics that leads to better learning outcomes for female students: Further evidence. In ECGBL 2022 16th European Conference on Game-Based Learning. Academic Conferences and publishing limited.

Michou, A., Matos, L., Gargurevich, R., Gumus, B., & Herrera, D. (2016). Building on the Enriched Hierarchical Model of Achievement Motivation: Autonomous and Controlling Reasons Underlying Mastery Goals. Psychologica Belgica, 56(3), 269–287. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.281

Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. Psychological Medicine, 52(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611

Nadeem, M., Oroszlanyova, M., & Farag, W. (2023). Effect of Digital Game-Based Learning on Student Engagement and Motivation. Computers, 12(9), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers12090177

Nisbet, Jordan(2024) Game-Based Learning: Pros, Cons & Implementation Tips for Educators.

Retrieved from, https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/game-based-learning

Ormrod, J. E., & Jones, B. D. (2023). Essentials of educational psychology: Big ideas to guide effective teaching (Sixth edition). Pearson.

Ormrod, J. E., & Mcdevitt, T. M. (2008). Fostering conceptual change about child development in prospective teachers and other college students. Child Development Perspectives, 2(2), 85-91.

Ozdemir Oz, A., Lane, J. F., & Michou, A. (2016). Autonomous and controlling reasons underlying achievement goals during task engagement: Their relation to intrinsic motivation and cheating. Educational Psychology, 36(7), 1160–1172. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1109064

Pan, X. (2020). Technology Acceptance, Technological Self-Efficacy, and Attitude Toward Technology-Based Self-Directed Learning: Learning Motivation as a Mediator. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.564294

Pan, X. (2023). Online learning environments, learners’ empowerment, and learning behavioral engagement: The mediating role of learning motivation. Sage Open, 13(4), https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231205098

Park, S. W. (2017). Motivation theories and instructional design. Foundations of learning and instructional design technology.

Pekrun, R. (2011). Emotions as Drivers of Learning and Cognitive Development. New

Perspectives on Affect and Learning Technologies, 23–39. https://doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9625- 1_3

Peters, R. S. (2015). The Concept of Motivation. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315712833

Pho, A., & Dinscore, A. (2015). Game-based learning. Tips and trends, 2.

Piaget, J. (1964). Cognitive Development in Children: Development and Learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2, 176-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660020306

Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of educational psychology, 82(1), 33.

Pintrich, P. R., & Groot, E. V. D. (n.d.). Motivational and Self-Regulated Learning Components of Classroom Academic Performance.

Pittser, B. (2024, September 25). Research Roundup: 2024 Studies on Game-based Learning.

Filament Games. https://www.filamentgames.com/blog/research-roundup-2024-studies-on-game- based-learning/

Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., & Kinzer, C. K. (2015). Foundations of Game-Based Learning. Educational Psychologist, 50(4), 258–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1122533

Rabey, G. P. (2001). Motivation is response. Industrial and commercial training, 33(1), 26-28. Racherla, J. (2025, February 28). Are we really measuring what matters? The hidden challenges of studying children across cultures « News# « Cambridge Core Blog. https://www.cambridge.org/core/blog/2025/02/28/are-we-really-measuring-what-matters-the- hidden-challenges-of-studying-children-across-cultures/

Ratinho E, Martins C. The role of gamified learning strategies in student's motivation in high school and higher education: A systematic review. Heliyon. 2023 Aug 9;9(8):e19033. doi: https://doi.org10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19033

Reiss, S. (2012). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Teaching of Psychology, 39(2), 152–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628312437704

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. https://doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Schmidt, N. B., Capron, D., Raines, A. M., Albanese, B., Short, N., Mathes, B. M., Morabito, D. M., Saulnier, K., & Allan, N. (2023). Evaluating the long-term (Three Year) durability of brief interventions targeting risk factors for psychopathology. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 96, 102710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2023.102710

Schunk, D. H., & Usher, E. L. (2012). Social cognitive theory and motivation. The Oxford handbook of human motivation, 2, 11-26.

Schunk, D. H., Meece, J. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (2014). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Sekhar, C., Patwardhan, M., & Singh, R. Kr. (2013). A literature review on motivation. Global Business Perspectives, 1(4), 471–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40196-013-0028-1

Shaffer, D. W., Squire, K. R., Halverson, R., & Gee, J. P. (2005). Video Games and the Future of Learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 105–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170508700205

Shute, V., & Ventura, M. (2013). Stealth Assessment: Measuring and Supporting Learning in Video Games. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9589.001.0001

Shute, V., & Wang, L. (2016). Assessing and Supporting Hard-to-Measure Constructs in Video

Games. In A. A. Rupp & J. P. Leighton (Eds.), The Handbook of Cognition and Assessment (pp. 535–562). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118956588.ch22

Shute, V., & Wang, L. (2016). Assessing and supporting hard‐to‐measure constructs in video games. The Wiley handbook of cognition and assessment: Frameworks, methodologies, and applications, 535-562.

Simon, B., Loewy, M., Stürmer, S., Weber, U., Freytag, P., Habig, C., Kampmeier, C., & Spahlinger, P. (1998). Collective identification and social movement participation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 646–658. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.646

Skinner, B. F. (1965). Science and human behavior (No. 92904). Simon and Schuster.

Standage, M., Duda, J., & Ntoumanis, N. (2003). Predicting motivational regulations in physical education: The interplay between dispositional goal orientations, motivational climate andperceived competence. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(8), 631–647.https://doi.org/10.1080/0264041031000101962

Student Engagement Instrument. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2025, from https://checkandconnect.umn.edu/explore/sei

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological review, 20(2), 158.

Werbach, K., & Hunter, D. (2015). The Gamification Toolkit: Dynamics, Mechanics, and Components for the Win. University of Pennsylvania Press.

World Bank. (2025, April). Taxing Times: South Asia Development Update (April 2025).

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-2230

Wouters, P., Van Nimwegen, C., Van Oostendorp, H., & Van Der Spek, E. D. (2013). A meta- analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031311

WWC | Handbooks and Other Resources. (2020). Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/handbooks

Xi, N., & Hamari, J. (2019). Does gamification satisfy needs? A study on the relationship between gamification features and intrinsic need satisfaction. International Journal of Information Management, 46, 210–221. https://doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.12.002

Zhang, Qi, and Zhonggen Yu. (2022) “Meta-Analysis on Investigating and Comparing the Effects on Learning Achievement and Motivation for Gamification and Game-Based Learning.” Education Research International, vol. 2022, Aug. 2022, pp. 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1519880.