Militarization of Cyberspace and its Implications on National/International Security
Keywords:
Cyberspace; Cyberattack; Cyberwarfare; Militarization; International Security
Abstract
The paramountcy of cyberspace together with the strikingness of globalization have transformed the universe into a global village, fostered businesses around the globe, connected people and enterprises and created immense opportunities for economic related activity, and communication. Consequently, an increasing number of processes are now reliant on the interconnectedness of digital infrastructure, which has resulted to the emerging cyber threats against individual, national, international, commercial and private security actors. Cyberattacks have changed the perception of states towards the cyberspace, necessitating the rising militarization of cyberspace by many countries leading to the advancement and development of their cyber military capabilities. This has created threatening conditions to the national/international security of states such as; the possibility of cyberattacks or cyberwar among states or non-state actors as well as the strategic leadership competition among powerful states such as; the U.S., China and Russia within the cyber domain. The militarization of cyberspace by these states and their perceptions of cyber threats from the advancement of cyber military capabilities of each state based on the realist thinking of international relations/security are formulated debates within this research. The research relies on secondary sources and employs a qualitative research approach, which reviews current literature on the topic under study to aver the potential transformation of the traditional/physical armed conflicts in the world into cyberwarfare as a result of the ongoing militarization of cyberspace constituting the fragility of national/international security.
References
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Ameli, S.R. Hosseini, H. & Noori, F. (2021). Militarization of Cyberspace, Changing Aspects of War in the 21st Century: The Case of Stuxnet against Iran. Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs, Vol. 10 (1), 99-136.
Arquilla, J. & Ronfeldt, D. (1993). Cyberwar is Coming Comparative Strategy Vol. 12(2): 141–165.
Bajaj, K. (2010). The Cybersecurity Agenda: Mobilizing for International Action. East-West Institute Report. Retrieved from http://www.ewi.info/system/files/Bajaj_Web.pdf Accessed on April 30, 2024.
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Cetron, M.J. & Davies,O. (2009).Ten Critical Trends for Cyber Security. The Futurist, Vol. 43(5), 40–49.
Clayton, M. (2010). Stuxnet Malware is ‘Weapon’ Out to Destroy. Iran’s Bushehr Nuclear Plant? The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys3000/phys3000_fa10/articles-f10/0606.pdf Accessed on April 25, 2024.
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Connell, M.E.O. (2012). Cyber Security without Cyber War. Journal of Conflict & Security Law, Vol. 17(2), 187–209.
Craig, A.J.S. & Valeriano, B. (2018). Realism and Cyber Conflict: Security in the Digital Age. In D. Orsi; J.R Avgustin & M. Nurnus (Eds). Realism in Practice: An Appraisal. E-International Relations Publishing.
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Firdous, A. (2020). Cyber Warfare and Global Power Politics. Center for International Strategic Studies (CISS), Vol. VIII(1), 71-85.
Gjelten, T. (2010). Shadow wars: Debating Cyber Disarmament. World Affairs, 173(4), 33–42.
Glaser, C.L. & Kaufmann, C. (1998). What is the Offense-Defense Balance and Can we Measure it? International Security, 22(4): 44–82.
Hopkins, N. (2012). Militarization of Cyberspace: How the Global Power Struggle Moved Online. The Guardian. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/ technology/2012/apr/16/militarisation-of-cyberspace-power-struggle Accessed on April 22, 2024.
Hughes, R. (2010). A Treaty for Cyberspace. International Affairs, Vol. 86(2):523–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2010.00894.x.
ITU. (2009). Overview of Cybersecurity. Recommendation ITU-T X.1205. International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved from https://www.itu.int/rec/dologin_pub.asp?lang=e&id=T-REC-X.1205-200804-I!!PDFE&type=items Accessed on April 22, 2024.
Klimburg, A. (2011). Mobilizing Cyber Power. Survival, 53(1), 41–60.
Kolet, K.S. (2001). Asymmetric Threats to the United States. Comparative Strategy, 20(3): 277–292.
Krekel, B.; Adams, P & Bakos, G. (2012). Occupying the Information High Ground: Chinese Capabilities for Computer Network Operations and Cyber Espionage. Report Prepared for the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission. Northrop Grumman.
Lancelot, J.F. (2020). Cyber-Diplomacy: Cyberwarfare and the Rules of Engagement. Journal of Cyber Security Technology, DOI: 10.1080/23742917.2020.1798155.
Lango, H. (2016). Competing Academic Approaches to Cyber-Security, Conflict in Cyber Space: Theoretical, strategic and legal perspectives, edited by Karsten Friis and Jens Ringsmose, 7–26. London: Routledge.
Libicki, M. (1995). What is Information Warfare?, National Defense University. Retrieved from: http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA367662 Accessed on April 30, 2024.
Lieber, K. (2014). The Offense-Defense Balance and Cyber Warfare. Cyber Analogies, edited by Emily O. Goldman and John Arquilla. Monterey, California: Naval Postgraduate School.
Lindsay, J.R. (2013). “Stuxnet and the Limits of Cyber Warfare”. Security Studies 22(3): 365–404.
Lin, H. S. (2010). Offensive Cyber Operations and the Use of Force. Journal of National Security Law and Policy, Vol. 4(63), p. 63.
Mandiant. (2013). Exposing One of China’s Cyber Espionage Units. Retrieved from: https://www.fireeye.com/content/dam/fireeye-www/services/pdfs/mandiant-apt1-report.pdf, Accessed on April 25, 2024.
Manson, G.P., III. (2011). Cyberwar: The United States and China Prepare for the Next Generation of Conflict. Comparative Strategy Vol.30(2),121–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2011.561730.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (1990). Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War. International Security Vol.15(1), 5–56.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (2006). “Structural Realism”. International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, edited by Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki, and Steve Smith, 71–88. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morgenthau, H.J. (1948). Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Mulrine, A. (2016). How North Korea Built up a Cadre of Code Warriors Prepared for Cyberwar. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from: http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Passcode/2015/0206/How-North-Korea-built-up-acadre-of-code-warriors-prepared-for-cyberwar Accessed on April 20, 2024.
National Security Strategy. (2010 May). The White House. Seal of the President of the United States. Retrieved from:.
Ndzendze, B. & Marwala, T. (2023). Artificial Intelligence and International Relations Theories. Palgrave Macmillan.
Nye, J.S. (1990). “Soft Power”. Foreign Policy 80: 153–171.
Nye, J. S. (2010). Cyber Power. Harvard Kennedy School, Belfer Center. Retrieved from: http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA522626. Accessed on April 30, 2024.
Nye, J.S. (2011). The Future of Power. New York: Public Affairs.
Reardon, R. & Choucri, N. (2012). The Role of Cyberspace in International Relations: A View of the Literature”. Paper presented at the 2012 ISA Annual Convention, San Diego, CA. 1 April.
Reisinger, D. (2012). Obama Takes Cyber-warfare to New Level, Report Says. CNET News. Retrieved from http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57445275-83/obamatakes-cyberwarfare-to-new-level-report-says/ Accessed on April 28, 2024.
Rocha, M. (2019). The Cyber Issue and Realist Thinking. Esc. Guerra Nav., Rio de Janeiro, Vol.25 (2), 517-543.
Saad, S., Bazan, S., & Varin, C. (2011). Asymmetric cyber-warfare between Israel and Hezbollah: The web as a new strategic battlefield. Proceedings of the ACM WebSci’11, Germany. Retrieved from: http://www.websci11.org/fileadmin/websci/Posters/96_paper.pdf. Accessed on April 17, 2024.
Sanger, D. (2012). Obama Order Sped up Wave of Cyberattacks against Iran. The New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?pagewanted=all Accessed on April 26, 2024.
Segal, A. (2016). The Hacked World Order: How Nations Fight, Trade, Maneuver, and Manipulate in the Digital Age. New York: Public Affairs.
Spade, J. M. 2011. China’s Cyber Power and America’s National Security. The U.S. Army War College. Retrieved from: http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a552990.pdf. Accessed on April 30, 2024.
Snyder, G.H. (2002). Mearsheimer’s World—Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay. International Security, Vol. 27 (1), 152.
Tabansky, L. (2011). Basic Concepts in Cyber Warfare. Military and Strategic Affairs, Vol. 3(1), 75-92.
The Comprehensive National Cyber Security Initiative. (2007). Executive Office of the President of the United States. Retrieved from: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ sites/default/files/cybersecurity.pdf Accessed on April 22, 2024.
The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace. (2003). The White House. Retrieved from: https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/2700096/Document-16.pdf Accessed on April 20, 2024.
Thomas, T. L. (2009). Nation-State Cyber Strategies: Examples from China and Russia. In F. D. Kramer, S. H. Starr and L. K. Wentz, Cyberpower and National Security (pp. 477-486). Washington, D. C.: Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University Press, Potomac Books Inc. Retrieved from: https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/Books/CTBSP Accessed on April 16, 2024.
Tofan, D. C., Andrei, M. L. & Dincă, M. L. (2012). Cyber Security Policy. A Methodology for Determining a National Cyber-Security Alert Level. Informatica Economică, Vol. 16(2), 103-115.
US Army Cyber Command. (2020). About Us. Retrieved from: https://www.arcyber.army.mil/Organization/About-Army-Cyber/ Accessed on April 23, 2024.
US Department of Defense. (2010). USCYBERCOM Fact Sheet. Retrieved from: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB424/docs/Cyber-038.pdf Accessed on April 12, 2024.
Valeriano, B. & Maness, R.C. (2016). Cyber Spillover Conflicts: Transitions from Cyber Conflict to Conventional Foreign Policy Disputes? Conflict in Cyber Space: Theoretical, Strategic, and Legal Perspectives, edited by Jens Ringsmore and Karsten Friis, 45–64. London: Routledge.
Waltz, K.N. (1979). Theory of International Politics. London: Addison Wesley.
Waltz, K.N. (1990). “Nuclear Myths and Political Realities”. American Political Science Review Vol. 84(3), 731–745.
Akdag, Y. (2018). The Likelihood of Cyberwar between the United States and China: A Neorealism and Power Transition Theory Perspective. Journal of Chinese Political Science/Association of Chinese Political Studies, 4-23 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-018-9565-4.
Albright, D., Brannan, P., & Walrond, C. (2011). Stuxnet Malware and Nntanz: Update of ISIS December 22, 2010 Report. Institute for Science and International Security. Retrieved from:http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/stuxnet_update_15Feb2011.pdf Accessed on April 22, 2024.
Alford, L.D. (2001). Cyber Warfare: A New Doctrine and Taxonomy. Crosstalk: Journal of Defense Software Engineering, Vol. 14(4), 27–30.
Ameli, S.R. Hosseini, H. & Noori, F. (2021). Militarization of Cyberspace, Changing Aspects of War in the 21st Century: The Case of Stuxnet against Iran. Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs, Vol. 10 (1), 99-136.
Arquilla, J. & Ronfeldt, D. (1993). Cyberwar is Coming Comparative Strategy Vol. 12(2): 141–165.
Bajaj, K. (2010). The Cybersecurity Agenda: Mobilizing for International Action. East-West Institute Report. Retrieved from http://www.ewi.info/system/files/Bajaj_Web.pdf Accessed on April 30, 2024.
Baylis, J. & Wirtz, J. (2002). Introduction. In: Baylis, John; et al. Strategy in the Contemporary World: An Introduction to Strategic Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Beaumont, P. (2010). Stuxnet Worm Heralds New Era of Global Cyberwar. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2010/sep/30/stuxnet-worm-new-era-global-cyberwar Accessed on April 27, 2024.
Ben-Israel, I. & Tabansky, L. (2014). An Interdisciplinary Look at Security Challenges in the Information Age. In Siboni, G. (Ed.). Cyberspace and National Security Selected Articles II, 51-67. Tel Aviv: INSS Institute for National Security Studies.
Bumiller, E. & Shanker, T. (2012). Panetta Warns of Dire Threat of Cyberattack on U.S. The New York Times, Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/12/world/panetta-warns-of-dire-threat-of-cyberattack.html Accessed on April 22, 2024.
Caplan, N. (2013). Cyber War: The Challenge to National Security. Global Security Studies, v. 4, n. 1, p. 93-115, 2013.
Cavelty, M.D., Mauer, V., Krishna-Hensel, S.F. (2007). Power and Security in the Information Age: Investigating the Role of the State in Cyberspace. 1. ed. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2007.
Cetron, M.J. & Davies,O. (2009).Ten Critical Trends for Cyber Security. The Futurist, Vol. 43(5), 40–49.
Clayton, M. (2010). Stuxnet Malware is ‘Weapon’ Out to Destroy. Iran’s Bushehr Nuclear Plant? The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys3000/phys3000_fa10/articles-f10/0606.pdf Accessed on April 25, 2024.
Cole, A., Drew, P. & McLaughlin, R. (2009). Sanremo Handbook of Rules of Engagement. International Institute of Humanitarian Law, Sanremo, Italy; 2009. p. 1–86.
Connell, M.E.O. (2012). Cyber Security without Cyber War. Journal of Conflict & Security Law, Vol. 17(2), 187–209.
Craig, A.J.S. & Valeriano, B. (2018). Realism and Cyber Conflict: Security in the Digital Age. In D. Orsi; J.R Avgustin & M. Nurnus (Eds). Realism in Practice: An Appraisal. E-International Relations Publishing.
Deibert, R. (2011). Tracking the Emerging Arms Race in Cyberspace. Interview interviewer: Bass. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol.67(1), 1–8. Retrieved from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0096340210393703 Accessed on April 26, 2024.
Eriksson, J. & Giacomello, G. (2006). The Information Revolution, Security, and International Relations: (IR) Relevant Theory? International Political Science Review Vol. 27(3): 221–244.
Farwell, J. P. and Rohozinski, R. (2012). The New Reality of Cyber War. Survival, Vol. 54(4), 107-120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2012.709391.
Firdous, A. (2020). Cyber Warfare and Global Power Politics. Center for International Strategic Studies (CISS), Vol. VIII(1), 71-85.
Gjelten, T. (2010). Shadow wars: Debating Cyber Disarmament. World Affairs, 173(4), 33–42.
Glaser, C.L. & Kaufmann, C. (1998). What is the Offense-Defense Balance and Can we Measure it? International Security, 22(4): 44–82.
Hopkins, N. (2012). Militarization of Cyberspace: How the Global Power Struggle Moved Online. The Guardian. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/ technology/2012/apr/16/militarisation-of-cyberspace-power-struggle Accessed on April 22, 2024.
Hughes, R. (2010). A Treaty for Cyberspace. International Affairs, Vol. 86(2):523–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2010.00894.x.
ITU. (2009). Overview of Cybersecurity. Recommendation ITU-T X.1205. International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved from https://www.itu.int/rec/dologin_pub.asp?lang=e&id=T-REC-X.1205-200804-I!!PDFE&type=items Accessed on April 22, 2024.
Klimburg, A. (2011). Mobilizing Cyber Power. Survival, 53(1), 41–60.
Kolet, K.S. (2001). Asymmetric Threats to the United States. Comparative Strategy, 20(3): 277–292.
Krekel, B.; Adams, P & Bakos, G. (2012). Occupying the Information High Ground: Chinese Capabilities for Computer Network Operations and Cyber Espionage. Report Prepared for the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission. Northrop Grumman.
Lancelot, J.F. (2020). Cyber-Diplomacy: Cyberwarfare and the Rules of Engagement. Journal of Cyber Security Technology, DOI: 10.1080/23742917.2020.1798155.
Lango, H. (2016). Competing Academic Approaches to Cyber-Security, Conflict in Cyber Space: Theoretical, strategic and legal perspectives, edited by Karsten Friis and Jens Ringsmose, 7–26. London: Routledge.
Libicki, M. (1995). What is Information Warfare?, National Defense University. Retrieved from: http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA367662 Accessed on April 30, 2024.
Lieber, K. (2014). The Offense-Defense Balance and Cyber Warfare. Cyber Analogies, edited by Emily O. Goldman and John Arquilla. Monterey, California: Naval Postgraduate School.
Lindsay, J.R. (2013). “Stuxnet and the Limits of Cyber Warfare”. Security Studies 22(3): 365–404.
Lin, H. S. (2010). Offensive Cyber Operations and the Use of Force. Journal of National Security Law and Policy, Vol. 4(63), p. 63.
Mandiant. (2013). Exposing One of China’s Cyber Espionage Units. Retrieved from: https://www.fireeye.com/content/dam/fireeye-www/services/pdfs/mandiant-apt1-report.pdf, Accessed on April 25, 2024.
Manson, G.P., III. (2011). Cyberwar: The United States and China Prepare for the Next Generation of Conflict. Comparative Strategy Vol.30(2),121–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2011.561730.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (1990). Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War. International Security Vol.15(1), 5–56.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (2006). “Structural Realism”. International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, edited by Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki, and Steve Smith, 71–88. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morgenthau, H.J. (1948). Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Mulrine, A. (2016). How North Korea Built up a Cadre of Code Warriors Prepared for Cyberwar. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from: http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Passcode/2015/0206/How-North-Korea-built-up-acadre-of-code-warriors-prepared-for-cyberwar Accessed on April 20, 2024.
National Security Strategy. (2010 May). The White House. Seal of the President of the United States. Retrieved from:.
Ndzendze, B. & Marwala, T. (2023). Artificial Intelligence and International Relations Theories. Palgrave Macmillan.
Nye, J.S. (1990). “Soft Power”. Foreign Policy 80: 153–171.
Nye, J. S. (2010). Cyber Power. Harvard Kennedy School, Belfer Center. Retrieved from: http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA522626. Accessed on April 30, 2024.
Nye, J.S. (2011). The Future of Power. New York: Public Affairs.
Reardon, R. & Choucri, N. (2012). The Role of Cyberspace in International Relations: A View of the Literature”. Paper presented at the 2012 ISA Annual Convention, San Diego, CA. 1 April.
Reisinger, D. (2012). Obama Takes Cyber-warfare to New Level, Report Says. CNET News. Retrieved from http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57445275-83/obamatakes-cyberwarfare-to-new-level-report-says/ Accessed on April 28, 2024.
Rocha, M. (2019). The Cyber Issue and Realist Thinking. Esc. Guerra Nav., Rio de Janeiro, Vol.25 (2), 517-543.
Saad, S., Bazan, S., & Varin, C. (2011). Asymmetric cyber-warfare between Israel and Hezbollah: The web as a new strategic battlefield. Proceedings of the ACM WebSci’11, Germany. Retrieved from: http://www.websci11.org/fileadmin/websci/Posters/96_paper.pdf. Accessed on April 17, 2024.
Sanger, D. (2012). Obama Order Sped up Wave of Cyberattacks against Iran. The New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?pagewanted=all Accessed on April 26, 2024.
Segal, A. (2016). The Hacked World Order: How Nations Fight, Trade, Maneuver, and Manipulate in the Digital Age. New York: Public Affairs.
Spade, J. M. 2011. China’s Cyber Power and America’s National Security. The U.S. Army War College. Retrieved from: http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a552990.pdf. Accessed on April 30, 2024.
Snyder, G.H. (2002). Mearsheimer’s World—Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay. International Security, Vol. 27 (1), 152.
Tabansky, L. (2011). Basic Concepts in Cyber Warfare. Military and Strategic Affairs, Vol. 3(1), 75-92.
The Comprehensive National Cyber Security Initiative. (2007). Executive Office of the President of the United States. Retrieved from: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ sites/default/files/cybersecurity.pdf Accessed on April 22, 2024.
The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace. (2003). The White House. Retrieved from: https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/2700096/Document-16.pdf Accessed on April 20, 2024.
Thomas, T. L. (2009). Nation-State Cyber Strategies: Examples from China and Russia. In F. D. Kramer, S. H. Starr and L. K. Wentz, Cyberpower and National Security (pp. 477-486). Washington, D. C.: Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University Press, Potomac Books Inc. Retrieved from: https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/Books/CTBSP Accessed on April 16, 2024.
Tofan, D. C., Andrei, M. L. & Dincă, M. L. (2012). Cyber Security Policy. A Methodology for Determining a National Cyber-Security Alert Level. Informatica Economică, Vol. 16(2), 103-115.
US Army Cyber Command. (2020). About Us. Retrieved from: https://www.arcyber.army.mil/Organization/About-Army-Cyber/ Accessed on April 23, 2024.
US Department of Defense. (2010). USCYBERCOM Fact Sheet. Retrieved from: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB424/docs/Cyber-038.pdf Accessed on April 12, 2024.
Valeriano, B. & Maness, R.C. (2016). Cyber Spillover Conflicts: Transitions from Cyber Conflict to Conventional Foreign Policy Disputes? Conflict in Cyber Space: Theoretical, Strategic, and Legal Perspectives, edited by Jens Ringsmore and Karsten Friis, 45–64. London: Routledge.
Waltz, K.N. (1979). Theory of International Politics. London: Addison Wesley.
Waltz, K.N. (1990). “Nuclear Myths and Political Realities”. American Political Science Review Vol. 84(3), 731–745.
Published
2024-07-11
How to Cite
Adisa Oluyemi, O. (2024). Militarization of Cyberspace and its Implications on National/International Security. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 7(7), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v7i7.2192
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