Militarization of Democracy and the Resurgence of Military Coups in Africa
Keywords:
Africa; Militarization; Militarism; Militarized Democracy; Resurgence of Military Coup
Abstract
Although the wave of democratization has swept through Africa from 1990s thus reinforcing the acceptability of democratic principles of governance, the post-colonial states in Africa have historically been confronted with incessant military interventions. The recent resurgence of military incursion in Africa has led to the remonstrance of scholars and policy makers involved in seeking nuanced understanding in this democratization process questioning the efficacy and resultfulness of democracy and the military interventions in the continent. This research methodologically explores relevant secondary sources of data within qualitative research method to examine the various undemocratic practices enacted by African political leaders as attributed features of a militarized democracy creating an enabling environment for the advent of military resurgence in the continent. This article avers that, the version of democracy embraced by political leaders in Africa is a militarized democracy whereby authoritarian and autocratic principles are characterized proprium of civilian governments leading to various challenges militating against the continental development, which also created an enabling environment for the military interventions.
References
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Decalo, S. (1973). Military Coups and Military Regime in Africa. Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol.11 (1), 105-127.
Decalo, S. (1985). African Personal Dictators. Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol.23 (2), 209-237.
Dibie, R.A. (2003). Public Management and Sustainable Development in Nigeria: Military-Bureaucracy Relationship. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Dierauer, I. (2013). Disequilibrium, Polarization, and Crisis Model: An International Relations Theory Explaining Conflict (1st ed). Plymouth: University Press of America.
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Guttridge, W.E. (1975). Military Regimes in Africa. London: Methuen and Co Limited.
Hoffmann, A. (2021). Military Coup Betrays Sudan’s Revolution: Scenarios to Regain the Path towards full Civilian Rule. Policy Brief. Retrieved from https://www.clingendael./2021-11/PB%20Sudan%20Coup.pdf. Accessed on March 28, 2024.
Hutchful, E. & Aning, K. (2021). Militarization and State Reconstruction in Africa: The West African Case. A Journal of Constitutional Development. 1-10.
Ifex, (2020). Ongoing Media Freedom Violations during Mali Unrest. Ifex. July 14, 2020. Retrieved from https://ifex. media-freedom-violations-during-mali-unrest. Accessed on March 20, 2024.
Isilow, H. (2022). Why are Military Coups on the Rise in Africa? Retrieved from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/why-are-military-coups. Accessed on March 28, 2024.
Kennedy, G. (1974). The Military in the Third Word. London: Gerald Duckworth and Company.
Kposowa, J.C., & Jenkins, A.J. (1992). The Political Origin of African Military Coups: Ethnic Competition, Military Centrality and the Struggle over the Postcolonial State. International Studies Quarterly. Vol.36 (3).
Levan, A.C. (2015). Dictators and Democracy in African Development: The Political Economy of Good Governance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mbaku, J.M. (2020). Threats to Democracy in Africa: The Rise of Unconstitutional Coups, in Africa in Focus, October 30, Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings/edu/. Accessed on March 20, 2024.
Mbara, G.C. & Graham, S. (2023). Dissecting the Impact of Recent Coups in Africa on Democracy and Good Governance. African Renaissance. 20(2), 91-115.
Mohammed, H. (2022). The Resurgence of Military Coups in Africa and the Role of the African Union (AU). Socialscientia. Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities. Vol7 (3), 82-97.
Mo Ibrahim Foundation (2020). 2020 Ibrahim Index of African Governance Index Report. Retrieved from https://mo.ibrahim.foundation/sites/default/files/2020-11/2020-index-report.pdf. Accessed on March 25, 2024.
Morgan, A. (2020). Democracy Versus the People: Mali has seen a Government Coup Following Escalating Protests. What has Caused the Unrest? Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0306422020981273. Accessed on March 21, 2024. Index on Censorship 49(4):42–45.
Morgenthau, H. (1948/54/73). Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York).
Mwai, P (2022) Are Military Takeovers on the Rise in Africa? BBC. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/worldafrica-46783600. Accessed on March 23, 2024.
Ndaliman, A.H. & Abada, I.M. (2023). Military Intervention in African Politics. In I.M Abada. P.H. Omeh. O.G. Uwaechia (Ed). Introduction to Political Science 1, Great AP Express Publishers Ltd.
Nichols, M. (2021). An Epidemic of Coups. UN Chief Laments, Urging Security Council to Act. October 26. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com.world.O. Accessed on March 19, 2024.
Odigbo, J. Ezekwelu, K.C. & Okeke, R.C. (2023). Democracy’s Discontent and the Resurgence of Military Coups in Africa. Journal of Contemporary International Relations and Diplomacy (JCIRD). Vol.4 (1), 644-655.
Okeke, G.S.M. (2018). Theories of Military in African Politics. In S.O. Oloruntoba, T. Falola (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of African Politics, Governance and Development. doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95232-8_13.
Olukayode, A. (2022). ECOWAS, Democratic Governance and the Coup in Burkina Faso Fisher. Journal of Research and Community Service. Vol.3 (13), 2140-2141.
Oluyemi, O.A. (2020). The Military Dimension of Niger Delta Crisis and Its Implications on Nigeria's National Security. SAGE Open. 10(2), p.1-11. doi: 10.1177/2158244020922895.
Oluyemi, O.A. (2023). Militarization and State Terrorism: A Critical Study of Nigerian Military Security Approach. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review. Vol 6(5), P. 296-307. doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i5.1271.
Omilusi, M. (2015). From Civil Rule to Militarized Democracy: Emerging Template for Governance. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance. Vol.6 (2), 9–13.
Onder, M. (2010). What Accounts for Military Interventions in Politics: A Cross-National Comparison. Retrieved from http://www.eakademi.org/incele.asp? Accessed on March 27, 2024.
Osariyekemwen I.G. & Osariyekemwen, I.A. (2021). The Resurgence of Military Dictatorship in African Politics: Implication for Democratic Consolidation. East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. Vol.6 (1), 123-130.
Powell, J. (2012). Determinants of the Attempting and Outcome of Coup d’état. Journal of Conflict Resolution. Vol.56 (6), 1017-1040.
Schultes, I. (2022). Western Africa’s Recent Coups: Highlight the Risk of Trading off Development for Security, the Rule of Law and Rights. Mo Ibrahim Foundation. Retrieved from https://mo.ibrahim.foundation2022-04/western-africa-coups.pdf. Accessed on March 26, 2024.
Suleiman, M. D., & Onapajo, H. (2022). Why West Africa has had so many Coups and How to Prevent More. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/why-west-africa-has-hadso-many-coups-and-how-to-prevent-more-176577. Accessed on March 26, 2024.
Tschörner, L. (2023). From Anchor of Stability to Crisis Hotspot: Background and Consequences of the Military Coup in Niger. Policy Brief 20 DEC 2023. Retrieved from https://www.policybrief/Tschoerner_Niger_Coup.pdf. Accessed on March 25, 2024.
Walt, S. M.(1991).The Renaissance of Security Studies. International Studies Quarterly.Vol.35, 211–239.
Walt, S.M. (1998). International Relations: One World, Many Theories. Foreign Policy. Vol.1(110), 29.
Wroblewska, A. (2015). Mali’s Cotton Industry: Come Rain or Come Shine. AFK Insider. February 16, 2015. Retrieved from http://afkinsider.com. Accessed on March 21, 2024.
Yabi, G. (2023). The Niger Coup’s Outsized Global Impact. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Retrieved from https://carnegieendowmglobal-impact-pub-90463.Accessed on March 25, 2024.
Adewumi, D. (2022). Militarization of Democracy as a Threat to Constitutional Change of Government in Africa. In C. Happi, J.O. Akamo, F. Gebresenbet & B. Gidey (Eds). Managing Security Threats: Building Resilience for the Africa We Want. TANA Forum. A collection of Policy Briefs.
Akinola, A.O. & Makombe, R. (2024). Rethinking the Resurgence of Military Coups in Africa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, SAGE. 1-17. DOI: 10.1177/00219096231224680.
Akubueze, C.N. (2024). Democracy's Discontent and the Resurgence of Coups in West Africa: Implications for Africa. African Journal of Law, Political Research and Administration Vol. 7(1), 14-24. DOI: 10.52589/AJLPRAUNWJTJEN.
Ali, H., Hammou, S.B. & Powell, J.M. (2022). Between Coups and Election: Constitutional Engineering and Military Entrenchment in Sudan. Africa Spectrum, SAGE. Vol. 57(3) 327–339. DOI: 10.1177/00020397221136581.
Amadife, E.E. (1999). Liberalization and Democratization in Nigeria: The International and Domestic Challenges. Journal of Black Studies. Vol.29 (5), 619-645.
Barka, H. B. & Ncube, M. (2012). Political Fragility in Africa: Are Military Coups d’Etat a Never-Ending Phenomenon? African Development Fund, African Development Bank. Retrieved from https//brief-political-fragility-in-africa-are-military-coups-detat-29430. Accessed March 26, 2024.
Baylis, J., Smith, S. and Owens, P. (2014). Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations (1st ed). Oxford: Oxford university press.
Breuer, J., & Elson, M. (2017). Frustration-Aggression Theory. In P. Sturmey (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of Violence and Aggression Chichester. Wiley Blackwell. (pp. 1-12).
Cassani, A. (2020). Third Term Bids and Risk for Democracy in Sub Sahara Africa. Italian Institute for International Political Studies. October 26, www.washingtonpost.com.
Conley, P. (2021). African Coups in the 21st Century. Democracy in Africa. Retrieved from http://democracyinafrica.org/african-coups-in-the-21stcentury/. Accessed 30 March 2022.
Christopher, Z. (2023). Military Coup in Niger: The Legacies of Colonialism and the U.S. War on Terror in West Africa (August 20, 2023). The Zambakari Advisory Africa Report. No 14 | September 2023, Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4546350. Accessed on March 27 2024.
Decalo, S. (1973). Military Coups and Military Regime in Africa. Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol.11 (1), 105-127.
Decalo, S. (1985). African Personal Dictators. Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol.23 (2), 209-237.
Dibie, R.A. (2003). Public Management and Sustainable Development in Nigeria: Military-Bureaucracy Relationship. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Dierauer, I. (2013). Disequilibrium, Polarization, and Crisis Model: An International Relations Theory Explaining Conflict (1st ed). Plymouth: University Press of America.
Duzor, M. & Williamson, B. (2022). By the Numbers: Coup in Africa, in VOA News. Retrieved from https://projects.voanews.com/african-coups/. Accessed on March 25, 2024.
Eshiet, I. (2021). The Military in Politics and Governance. In O. Iwuagwu (Ed). Nation Building in Africa: Issues, Challenges and Emerging Trends. University of Lagos Press and Bookshop Limited, 2021.
Fayemi, J.K (1998).The Future of Demilitarization and Civil Military Relations in West Africa: Challenges and Prospects for Democratic Consolidation. African Journal of Political Science. Vol.3(1), 82-103.
Finer, S.E. 1988. The Man on Horseback. Bourdr. Co: Westview Press.
Folola, T. (2022). Are coups back in Africa? Premium Times. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/508569-are-coups. Accessed on March 24, 2024.
Guttridge, W.E. (1975). Military Regimes in Africa. London: Methuen and Co Limited.
Hoffmann, A. (2021). Military Coup Betrays Sudan’s Revolution: Scenarios to Regain the Path towards full Civilian Rule. Policy Brief. Retrieved from https://www.clingendael./2021-11/PB%20Sudan%20Coup.pdf. Accessed on March 28, 2024.
Hutchful, E. & Aning, K. (2021). Militarization and State Reconstruction in Africa: The West African Case. A Journal of Constitutional Development. 1-10.
Ifex, (2020). Ongoing Media Freedom Violations during Mali Unrest. Ifex. July 14, 2020. Retrieved from https://ifex. media-freedom-violations-during-mali-unrest. Accessed on March 20, 2024.
Isilow, H. (2022). Why are Military Coups on the Rise in Africa? Retrieved from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/why-are-military-coups. Accessed on March 28, 2024.
Kennedy, G. (1974). The Military in the Third Word. London: Gerald Duckworth and Company.
Kposowa, J.C., & Jenkins, A.J. (1992). The Political Origin of African Military Coups: Ethnic Competition, Military Centrality and the Struggle over the Postcolonial State. International Studies Quarterly. Vol.36 (3).
Levan, A.C. (2015). Dictators and Democracy in African Development: The Political Economy of Good Governance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mbaku, J.M. (2020). Threats to Democracy in Africa: The Rise of Unconstitutional Coups, in Africa in Focus, October 30, Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings/edu/. Accessed on March 20, 2024.
Mbara, G.C. & Graham, S. (2023). Dissecting the Impact of Recent Coups in Africa on Democracy and Good Governance. African Renaissance. 20(2), 91-115.
Mohammed, H. (2022). The Resurgence of Military Coups in Africa and the Role of the African Union (AU). Socialscientia. Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities. Vol7 (3), 82-97.
Mo Ibrahim Foundation (2020). 2020 Ibrahim Index of African Governance Index Report. Retrieved from https://mo.ibrahim.foundation/sites/default/files/2020-11/2020-index-report.pdf. Accessed on March 25, 2024.
Morgan, A. (2020). Democracy Versus the People: Mali has seen a Government Coup Following Escalating Protests. What has Caused the Unrest? Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0306422020981273. Accessed on March 21, 2024. Index on Censorship 49(4):42–45.
Morgenthau, H. (1948/54/73). Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York).
Mwai, P (2022) Are Military Takeovers on the Rise in Africa? BBC. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/worldafrica-46783600. Accessed on March 23, 2024.
Ndaliman, A.H. & Abada, I.M. (2023). Military Intervention in African Politics. In I.M Abada. P.H. Omeh. O.G. Uwaechia (Ed). Introduction to Political Science 1, Great AP Express Publishers Ltd.
Nichols, M. (2021). An Epidemic of Coups. UN Chief Laments, Urging Security Council to Act. October 26. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com.world.O. Accessed on March 19, 2024.
Odigbo, J. Ezekwelu, K.C. & Okeke, R.C. (2023). Democracy’s Discontent and the Resurgence of Military Coups in Africa. Journal of Contemporary International Relations and Diplomacy (JCIRD). Vol.4 (1), 644-655.
Okeke, G.S.M. (2018). Theories of Military in African Politics. In S.O. Oloruntoba, T. Falola (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of African Politics, Governance and Development. doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95232-8_13.
Olukayode, A. (2022). ECOWAS, Democratic Governance and the Coup in Burkina Faso Fisher. Journal of Research and Community Service. Vol.3 (13), 2140-2141.
Oluyemi, O.A. (2020). The Military Dimension of Niger Delta Crisis and Its Implications on Nigeria's National Security. SAGE Open. 10(2), p.1-11. doi: 10.1177/2158244020922895.
Oluyemi, O.A. (2023). Militarization and State Terrorism: A Critical Study of Nigerian Military Security Approach. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review. Vol 6(5), P. 296-307. doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i5.1271.
Omilusi, M. (2015). From Civil Rule to Militarized Democracy: Emerging Template for Governance. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance. Vol.6 (2), 9–13.
Onder, M. (2010). What Accounts for Military Interventions in Politics: A Cross-National Comparison. Retrieved from http://www.eakademi.org/incele.asp? Accessed on March 27, 2024.
Osariyekemwen I.G. & Osariyekemwen, I.A. (2021). The Resurgence of Military Dictatorship in African Politics: Implication for Democratic Consolidation. East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. Vol.6 (1), 123-130.
Powell, J. (2012). Determinants of the Attempting and Outcome of Coup d’état. Journal of Conflict Resolution. Vol.56 (6), 1017-1040.
Schultes, I. (2022). Western Africa’s Recent Coups: Highlight the Risk of Trading off Development for Security, the Rule of Law and Rights. Mo Ibrahim Foundation. Retrieved from https://mo.ibrahim.foundation2022-04/western-africa-coups.pdf. Accessed on March 26, 2024.
Suleiman, M. D., & Onapajo, H. (2022). Why West Africa has had so many Coups and How to Prevent More. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/why-west-africa-has-hadso-many-coups-and-how-to-prevent-more-176577. Accessed on March 26, 2024.
Tschörner, L. (2023). From Anchor of Stability to Crisis Hotspot: Background and Consequences of the Military Coup in Niger. Policy Brief 20 DEC 2023. Retrieved from https://www.policybrief/Tschoerner_Niger_Coup.pdf. Accessed on March 25, 2024.
Walt, S. M.(1991).The Renaissance of Security Studies. International Studies Quarterly.Vol.35, 211–239.
Walt, S.M. (1998). International Relations: One World, Many Theories. Foreign Policy. Vol.1(110), 29.
Wroblewska, A. (2015). Mali’s Cotton Industry: Come Rain or Come Shine. AFK Insider. February 16, 2015. Retrieved from http://afkinsider.com. Accessed on March 21, 2024.
Yabi, G. (2023). The Niger Coup’s Outsized Global Impact. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Retrieved from https://carnegieendowmglobal-impact-pub-90463.Accessed on March 25, 2024.
Published
2024-06-05
How to Cite
Oluyemi, O. (2024). Militarization of Democracy and the Resurgence of Military Coups in Africa. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 7(6), 92-105. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v7i6.2154
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