Women Representation in the Military: The Case of the South African National Defence Force, Limpopo Province
Keywords:
Women; Military; Combat; Gender Mainstreaming; Feminist Qualitative Methodology
Abstract
Promoting gender equality and women empowerment is a long standing item on the development agenda nationally and internationally. It is also item number five of the 2030 millennium development goals; gender equality, ending all discrimination against women and girls is not only a basic right but a human right. Research has proven that empowering women and girls helps economic growth and development. Empowering women is necessary for women’s enhancement in society and the workplace, the military is no exception. This paper argues on the gender mainstreaming policies in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) and whether they are adequately implemented to ensure equal representation of women in all military ranks including combat. The researchers used Liberal Feminist Theory (LFT), which advocates for women’s right to be seen and acknowledged as human rights. The researchers employed a feminist qualitative research methodology and exploratory design. Snowballing sampling technique was used to select participants in the SANDF military air-force base in Hoedspruit, Limpopo and saturation was reached after the fifteenth participant for in-depth interviews. Data was analysed using Thematic Analysis (TA). Findings in the study revealed that women in the military are of the view that the military is making strides in ensuring an equal representation between men and women, however women view themselves as less represented than their male counterparts, regardless of the policies put in place. Results also revealed that that the lack of representation of women in the military is due to the SANDF not being meant for women. The paper therefore concludes that women are not equally represented to their male counterparts in the military and that there is need for improvement towards this in senior and management positions within the SANDF. The study recommends that the SANDF as a government institution could also create a sense of urgency to all the units in the quest to ensure equal representation of women. Creating a sense of urgency not only will ensure that more women can be part of the military, but will also create an awareness of the necessity for women to join the army.
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Fasting, K.& Sand, T.S. 2010. Gender and Military Issues: A Categorized Research Bibliography. Published in the Moving Soldiers: The Norwegian Defence University College.
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Heinecken, L.&Visser, D. 2008. “Officer Education at the South African Military Academy: Social science but no sociology”. Armed Forces and Society 35/1.145–161.
Heinecken, L. & van der Waag-Cowling, N. 2009. The Politics of Race and Gender in the South African Armed Forces: Issues, Challenges, Lessons. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. Vol. 47, No 4, 517-538, November 2009.
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Heinecken, L. 2015. The Military, War and Society: The need for critical sociological engagement. Scientia Militaria, South African Journal of Military Studies, 43 (1), 1–16.
Heinecken, L. &van der Waag-Cowling, N. 2009. The Politics of Race and Gender in the South African Armed Forces: Issues, Challenges, Lessons. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. Vol. 47, No 4, 517-538.
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Karmack, K.2016. Women in Combat: Issues forcongress. Congressional Research Service. CRS Report.
Karner, T.1998. Engendering Violent Men: Oral Histories of Military Masculinity.
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Wing, P.2000. Women in warfare and the Military. Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol 2 (25).
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Anderson, E.2005. Orthodox and Inclusive Masculinity; Competing Masculinities among heterosexual men in a feminized terrain. Sociological Perspectives. Sage Publications.
Anderson & Branch 2013.Promoting Women’s Participation in Peace Negotiation and Peace Negotiations. Sage Publications.
Aning1998. Gender and Civil War: the Cases of Liberia and Sierra Leone. Journal of Civil Wars 1(1:4) accessed: http;//www.review.unpeace.org.
Ankala, M. 2018.Challenging Gender Equality in South African Transformation Policies ‒ A Case of the White Paper: A programme for the transformation of higher education.South African Journal of Higher Education, Vol 32(3) Accessed: http://dx.doi.org/10.20853/32-3-1521.
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Blacksmith, E.A. 1992. Women in the Military. New York: The H.W. Wilson Company.
Boyce, L. A., & Herd, A. M. (2003). The relationship between gender role stereotypes and requisite military characteristics. Sex Roles, 49, 365-378. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025164221364.
Braun, V.& Clarke, V. 2006. Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 32 (2) 77-101 viewed 28 August 2012 fromhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1191.
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Burrelli, D. 2013. Women in Combat: Issues for congress. Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service.
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Christ, A. 2013. Patriarchy as a System of Male Dominance Created at the Intersection of the Control of Women, Private Property and War, Part 1. http://femisnismandreligion.com/2013/02/18 accessed 18 February 2019
Cock, J. 1992. ‘Feminism and Militarism: Some questions raised by the Gulf War’, South African Defence Review, 6.
Cohn, C. 2000. Mainstreaming Gender in UN security Policy: A path of political transformation. Cambridge University Press.
Commission for Gender Equality 2000. ‘A Framework for Transforming Gender Relations’, www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=70346, accessed 3 February 2019.
Connell, R.W. 1993. The Big Picture: Masculinities in the Recent World History. Theory and Society 22, 597-623.
Cooke, M. 1993. Wo-man, Retelling the War Myth. In M. Cooke & A. Woollacott (Eds.), Gendering War Talk. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Cox, J.2016. Leadership and Management Roles: Challenges and success strategies, AORN Journal, Vol 104 (2).
Defence Review Committee. 2011. Work of the Defence Review Committee, media release, 30 August 2011. Accessed 23 June 2019.
Department of Defence. 1998. The Defence Review. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Defence. 2005. Equal Opportunities and Affirmative Action Climate Survey: 060/IG DODO EA/04-05. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Defence. 2005. Strategic Business Plan (MTEF FY 2005/2006FY2007/08). Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Defence. 2008. Gender Mainstreaming Strategy. No 1 of 2008. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Defence. 2009. Joint Defence Publication: Processes and procedures for transformation management in the Department of Defence. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Defence. 2010. Human Resources Management Information (1 June 2010). Directorate HR Strategy and Plans Information Centre. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Public Service and Administration. 2006. Gender Equality Strategic Framework for the Public Service. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Donnelly, E. 2016. Statement of the Record Hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee-SD G-50 Implementation of Decision to Open Ground Combat Units to Women.
Duncanson, C.& Woodward, R. 2015. Regendering the Military: Theorizing women's military participation. Security Dialogue. 47. 3-21. 10.1177/0967010615614137.
Woodward, R & Duncanson, C (eds). 2017. The Palgrave Handbook of Gender and the Military. Palgrave MacMillan.
Ekiyor, T.2013. Female Combatants in West Africa; progress or Regress? Accra: West Africa Network for peacebuilding. Journal of Science and Sustainable Elgström, O. (2000). Norm negotiations. The construction of new norms regarding gender and development in EU foreign aid policy. Journal of European Public Policy, 7(3), 457 476. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760050086125Development.
Ender, M.& Gibson, A. 2005. “Invisible Institution: The military, war and peace in pre 9/11 Introductory Sociology textbooks”. Journal of Political and Military Sociology 33/2. 2005. 249–266.
Esterhuyse, A. 2010.Getting the Job Done: Transformation in the South African Military.Strategic Review for Southern Africa. Vol XXXII No 1 (June 2015) pp. 1-30.
Fasting, K.& Sand, T.S. 2010. Gender and Military Issues: A Categorized Research Bibliography. Published in the Moving Soldiers: The Norwegian Defence University College.
Frankel, P. 2000. Soldiers in a Storm: The Armed Forces in South Africa’s Democratic Transition, Boulder, CO, Westview Press, cited in Stott (2002).
Gouws, A. &Kotze. 2007. Women in leadership positions in South Africa: The roles of values. Politikon 34 (2) 165-185.
Heinecken, L.&Visser, D. 2008. “Officer Education at the South African Military Academy: Social science but no sociology”. Armed Forces and Society 35/1.145–161.
Heinecken, L. & van der Waag-Cowling, N. 2009. The Politics of Race and Gender in the South African Armed Forces: Issues, Challenges, Lessons. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. Vol. 47, No 4, 517-538, November 2009.
Heinecken, L. 2000. Securing South Africa’s Future: Putting Women in the Frontline.Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 22.2 (Nov 2000) p76 (27).
Heinecken, L. 2015. The Military, War and Society: The need for critical sociological engagement. Scientia Militaria, South African Journal of Military Studies, 43 (1), 1–16.
Heinecken, L. &van der Waag-Cowling, N. 2009. The Politics of Race and Gender in the South African Armed Forces: Issues, Challenges, Lessons. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. Vol. 47, No 4, 517-538.
Helie-Lucas, M. 1990. “Strategies of Women and Women’s Movement in the Muslim World,vis-a-vis Fundamentals:fromentryism to internationalism”. Occasional paper.
Hendricks, C.&Valasek, K. 2010. ‘Gender and security sector transformation – from theory to South African practice’, in Alan Bryden and FunmiOlonisakin (Eds.) Security Sector Transformation in Africa. Berlin: Lit Verlag.
Hesse-Biber, S.N.&Paitelli, D. 2004. Holistic Reflexivity: The Feminist Practice of Reflexivity. In S.N. Hesse-Biber (Eds.). Handbook of Feminist Research: Theory and praxis, 493-544. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hudson, H. 2000. Mainstreaming Gender in Peacekeeping Operations: Can Africa Learn From International Experience? African Security Review, Volume 9, No 4.
Karmack, K.2016. Women in Combat: Issues forcongress. Congressional Research Service. CRS Report.
Karner, T.1998. Engendering Violent Men: Oral Histories of Military Masculinity.
Kovitz, M.2003. The Roots of Military Masculinities. In Higate, Paul R. 2003. Military Masculinities; Identity and the State. Westport: Praeger Publishers.
Macionis, J. & Plummer, K. 2008. Sociology: A Global Introduction. Essex Pearson Education Limited.
Mackinnon, C. 1983.Feminism,Marxism,Method and the State: Towards feminist jurisprudence. University of Chicago Press.
MacKinnon, C. 1987.Feminism Unmodified. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
MacKinnon, C. 1989a.Towards a Feminist Theory of the State. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Magadla, S. 2015. Women Combatants and Liberation Movements in South Africa: guerrilla girls, combative mothers and in-betweeners, African Security Review,Vol 24 (4).
Memela-Motumi, N. 2011.‘Presentation to the JSCD on: Transformation, gender equity and empowerment within the DOD’, http://www.pmg.org.za/report/20110623-transformation-gender-equity, accessed 30 January 2015.
Memela-Motumi. N. 2009. Spear of Hope: Affirmative Action, Transformation and Reconciliation in the New SANDF. Germany: VDM VerlagDr Muller. Aktiengesellschaft& Co.
Odhiambo, W.&Kamau, P. 2003. Public Procurement: Lessons from Kenya, Tanania and Uganda, OECD,Development Centre Working Paper.
Simic, O. 2010. ‘Does the Presence of Women Really Matter? Towardscombating male sexual violence in peacekeeping operations’, International Peacekeeping, 17(2).
Sisulu, L. 2011. Minister of Defence and Veteran’s Affairs, Address at Parade Commemorating Women’s Month, http://www.dod.mil.za/speeches/Augustpercent202011/imbizo_media_centre.htm, accessed 3 February 2019.
Skaine, R. 2011. Women in Combat: A reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbra.
Suttner, R. 2004. Democratic Transition and Consolidation in South Africa: the advice of ‘the experts’. Current Sociology, 52(5): 755–773.
Suttner, R.2006. African National Congress as Dominant Organisation: Impact of the attainment of power and phases of post liberation development and crisis. Delivered to the WITS Interdisciplinary Research Seminar. October2, Johannesburg.
Sule, T. 2002. Nationalism, Militarism and Gender Politics: women in the Military. Minerva Quarterly Reporton Women andthe Military,20 (2).
United Nations Development Programme2005.En Route to Equality a Gender Review of National MDG Reports, UNDP New York, http://www.undp.org/gender/docs/en-route-to-equality.pdf, accessed 15 February 2019.
Unterhalter, E. 1987. Women Soldiers and White Unity in Apartheid South Africa. University of WisconsinPress.
Unterhalter, E. 2007. Gender, Schooling and Global Social Justice. London: Taylor Francis.
White Paper on National Defence for the Republic of South Africa.1996, .http://www.dod.mil.za/documents/WhitePaperonDef/whitepaper%20on%20defence1996.pdf accessed 17 January 2019.
Widschut, A. 2008. Engendering Gender Equality in Professional Employment: Can Policy Rise to the Occasion? Agend vol 78, 93-104.
Wing, P.2000. Women in warfare and the Military. Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol 2 (25).
Winnow (n.d). Gender in the Workplace. Sage Publications.
Winslow, D. (n.d). Gender and Military Sociology.http://www.fhse.se/documents accessed 09 August 2014.
Wollenstonescraft, M. 1792. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.London: Johnson Publishers.
Woodward, R. 2000. Warrior, Heroes and Little Green Men: Soldiers, Military training and the construction of rural masculinities, Rural Sociology, 65 (4), 640-657.
Woolf, V.1929.A Room of One’s Own. Horgarth Press.
Word Power Dictionary.2012. Improve Your English as You Build Your Vocabulary. The Reader’s Digest Association South Africa, Cape Town.
Zeigler, S.& Gunderson, G. 2005. Pernicious, Patriarchy or Prosecutorial Progress? Confronting Culture, War and Rape in International Law. Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol25 (2).
Published
2023-09-04
How to Cite
Mmakola, K. L., & Sithole, S. L. (2023). Women Representation in the Military: The Case of the South African National Defence Force, Limpopo Province. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 6(9), 67-82. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i9.1593
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