Women’s Agricultural Labour and Its Contribution to Women Empowerment in the Limpopo Province, South Africa
Keywords:
Women Empowerment; Agricultural Labour; Women Farming; Limpopo Province
Abstract
Globally, agricultural production is largely undertaken by women. Nevertheless, there are numerous challenges that come with being a female farmer. The burden of agricultural productivity is further exasperated by the tendency of males to migrate urban areas in pursuit of employment. This leaves women with the enormous task of being responsible for 90 percent of food processing activities, water and firewood collection. Regardless of these contributions in agriculture, the plight of women is still largely unaddressed by policymakers in our society. This paper explores, women’s labour in agriculture, and the role it plays in the empowerment of women living in rural areas. A sample of 16 was drawn from two women-led agricultural projects, namely Kwadikwaneng nursery and the Lahlapapadi goat project in the Limpopo Province. The study was carried out qualitatively, with focus groups and in-depth interviews as methods of data collection. The study revealed that women in agriculture are empowered and are able to positively empower other women. Women in the study were able to use their agricultural labour to contribute positively to their household income. The findings of the study also revealed that women in the two projects perceive their own projects to be much bigger and better in terms of their performance than those of their male counterparts, which in itself is an empowering factor. Lastly, the study revealed that the agriculture can be perceived as a pathway to women empowerment, recognition and visibility in their local communities. The study therefore recommends that women should consistently receive support from relevant stakeholder to ensure sustainable development and empowerment.
References
Bock & Shortfall (ed), (2008). Rural Gender Relations: Issues and Case studies, CABI publishing Croswell Press, Wallingford.
Breen, R., & Rottman, B., (1995). Class Stratification: A comparative Perspective, Harvester, Wheatsheaf, New York.
Brown, C.K. (1994). Gender Roles in Household Allocation of Resources and Decision Making in Ghana, Family and Development Programme (FADEP), Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana.
Brown, L R, Feldstein,H., Haadad, L., Pena, C., and Quisumbing, A. (2001), Women As Producers, Gatekeepers And Shock Absorbers. In: Per Pinstrup Anderson and RajulPandya -Lorch (eds), The Unfinished Agenda - Perspectives on overcoming Hunger, Poverty and Environmental Degradation, DFID Sustainable livelihoods Guidance.
Brown, L. R., & L. Haddad. (1995). Time Allocation Patterns and Time Burdens: A Gendered Analysis of Seven Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D. C. Photocopy.
Bryceson, D.F., Mbara, T.C., & Maunder, D. (2003), Livelihoods, Daily Mobility and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa, Transport Reviews 23 (2), 177–196.
Bryceson, DF & Howe, J. (1993). African Rural Households and Transport: Reducing the Burden of Women, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Buiten, S. (2007). Gender, Transport and The Feminist Agenda: Feminist Insights Towards Engendering Transport Research, Transport and Communication Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific 76.
Burchi, F & Muro, P. (2012). A Human Development and Capability Approach to Food Security: A Conceptual Framework and Information Basis. Working Paper, United Nations Programme Regional Burea for Africa.
Burn, S. (2005). Women across Cultures: A Global Perspective, 2nd ed, MacGraw-Hill, New York.
Butler, J. (1988). Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory. Theatre Journal, 40 (4), 519-531.
Button, K., & Nijkamp, P. (1997). Social Change and Sustainable Transport, Journal of Transport Geography, 5(3) 215-218, viewed 16 October 2012 from http://dare.ubvu.vuinl/bitstrea/handle/1871.
Byrne, D. (2005). Social Exclusion, MacGraw Hill International.
Calhoun, D. (2002). Dictionary of the Social Science, Oxford University Press.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online. (2013). Cambridge University Press, viewed 18 April 2013 from http://www.cambridgedictionaries.com.
Cambridge English Dictionary. (2012). Cambridge University Press, viewed 19 April 2013 from http://www.cambridgedictionaries.com.
Campbell, E & Wasco, M. (2000). Researching the Vulnerable: A guide to Sensitive research methods, In Liamputtong, P., (eds), Researching the Vulnerable: A guide to sensitive research methods, Sage Publications.
Carr, E. (2008). Men’s crops ad Women’s Crops: The importance of gender to the understanding of Agricultural and development outcomes in Ghana’s Central Region, World Development 36 (5), 990-915 Elsevier, USA, viewed 29 June 2013 from http://www.elsevier.com/locate/worlddev.
Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). (1999). The Economic Role of Women in Agricultural and Rural Development: Promoting, income-generation activities, Summary Report of Seminar, Anthens, Greece.
Chakwizira, J, Nhemachena, C & Mashiri, M. (2010). Connecting Transport, Agriculture and Rural Development: Experiences from Mhlontlo local Municipality Integrated Infrastructure. Atlas: Pretoria.
Cornwall, A. (1997). Men, Masculinity, and Gender in Development. Gender and Development 5 (2), 8–13.
Date-Bah, E. (ed.), (1997), Promoting Gender Equality at Work: Turning Vision Into Reality For The Twenty-First Century. Zed Books, New York.
Folbre, N. (1995). Engendering Economics: New Perspectives on Women, Work, and Demographic Change. In Proceedings of the Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics, M. Bruno and B. Pleskovic (eds), Washington, D.C, World Bank.
Folbre, N., (1982), "Exploitation Comes Home: A Critique of Marxian Theory of Family Labor, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 6 (4), 317-29, Oxford University Press.
Folbre, N., (1986), Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics. World Development, 14 (2), viewed 19 January (2013) from http://www.unc.edu/courses/201spring/econ/586.
Goetz, A., (eds), 1997). Getting Institutions Right for Women in Development, Zed Books, London.
Goetz, A.M, 1997, "Introduction: Getting Institutions Right for Women in Development", in Anne Marie Goetz (ed.), Getting Institutions Right for Women in Development, London and New York: Zed Books, 1-28.
Goetz, A.M., & Sen, A., Gupta, (1994), Who Takes the Credit? Gender, Power, and Control over Loan Use in Rural Credit Programmes in Bangladesh, Institute of Development Studies, Mimeo, In Goetz, A. M., and R. Sen Gupta., (1996), Who takes credit? Gender, power, and control over loan use in rural credit programs in Bangladesh. World Development 24 (1), 45–64.
Iman, A. Mama, A., & Sow. F., (1997), Engendering African Social Sciences. Dakar: CODESRIA.
Jackson, C, (2005), Strengthening Food Policy through Gender and Intra-household Analysis Impact Assessment of IFPRI Multicountry Research, Impact Assessment Discussion Paper, 2005.International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.
Jackson, E. & Jones, J. (ed), (1998), Contemporary Feminist Theories, University Press: New York.
Jackson, S., (1992), Mainstreaming WID: A survey of Approaches to Women in Development Troeaire Development Review, 85-105.
Khan, A & Bibi, Z., (2011), Women’s Socio-economic Empowerment through Participatory Approach: A Critical Assessment, Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 49 (1), 133-148.
Liepins, R., (1996), “Reading Agricultural Power: Media as Sites and Processes in the Construction of Meaning,” New Zealand Geographer 52, 3-10.
Liepins, R., (1998), “Fields of Action: Australian Women's Agricultural Activism in the 1990s,” Rural Sociology, 63,128-56.
Liepins, R., (2000), “Making Men: The Construction and Representation Of Agriculture-Based Masculinities In Australia And New Zealand”, Rural Sociology 65, 605-620.
Lips, H., (1991), Women, Men and Power. MacGraw Hill, Higher Education.
Little, J., (1994), Gender Planning and The Policy Process, England, Pergamon Oxford.
Macionis, J. & Plummer, K. (2008). Sociology: A Global Introduction, Essex Pearson Education Limited.
Mahapa, S. M & Mashiri, M. (2010). Social Exclusion and rural transport: Gender aspects of a road improvement project in Tshitwe, Northern Province, Development Studies South Africa, 18, (3).
Marx, K. (1846). The German Ideology, with F. Engels Republished in D. McLellan.
Meijerink, G. & P. Roza. (2007). The Role of Agriculture in Development. Markets, Chains and Sustainable Development Strategy and Policy Paper, no. 5. Stichting DLO, Wageningen, viewed 12 September 2012 from http://www.boci.wur.nl/UK/Publications/.
Mohanty, Chandra T. (1987). “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses", in Nalini Visvanathan (ed.) et al., The Women, Gender and Development Reader, London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 79-86.
Moser, Caroline O.N. (1993). Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training, London and New York, Routledge.
Nusbaum, M., & Glover, J. (1995). Woman, culture and Development: A case study of Human Capabilities, Oxford.
Oxfam.(1995). ‘Women and Culture,’ Gender and Development, Oxfam Journal, 3(1), Oxfam: Oxford.
Pillai N, Asalanta, B., & Ponnuswamy, B. (1995). Women in Development: Dissecting the Discourse. 1-48 viewed 16 December 2012 from http://mpra.ub.uni.muechen.de/13119.
Pini, B. (2005). “The Third Sex: Women in Leadership in Australian Agriculture.” Gender, Work and Organisation, 12 (1), 73-88.
Quinsumbing, A, R., Meinzen-Dick., & Smith, L. (2004). Increasing the Effective Participation of Women In Food And Nutrition Security In Africa. Proceeding of the International Food Policy Research Institute 2020 African Conference brief, Washington, DC.
Quisumbing, A. (2003). Household Decisions, Gender and Development, A synthesis of Recent Research, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC.
Quisumbing, A. R., L. R. Brown, H. S. Feldstein, L. Haddad, & C. Peña. (1995). Women: The Key to Food Security, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
Quisumbing, A., & McClafferty, B. (2006). Using Gender Research in Development, Food Security in Practice, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington.
Radel, C. (2011). Becoming Farmers: Opening Spaces for Women Resource Control in Calakmul, Mexico, Utah State University, Latin American Research Review, 42 (2) viewed 8 November 2012 from http://cnr.usu.edu/envs/htm/geography/claudia-radel-publications.
Rathberger, M, E. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice, The Journal of Developing Areas, 12, (4). 489-502 viewed 16 July 2013 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4191904.
Reeves, H & Baden, H. (2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions, prepared for the Department for International Development (DFID) for its gender mainstreaming, Institute of Development Studies, viewed 20 May 2013 from http://www.ids.ac.uk/bridge.
Ritzer, G., (eds), (2000). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, Blackwell Publishing, United Kingdom.
Saugeres, L. (2002). “She’s Not Really A Woman, She’s Half A Man: Gendered Discourses Of Embodiment In A French Farming Community, Women’s Studies International Forum, 25 (6) 641-650.
Schalkwyk, J., Thomas, H., & Woroniuk, B. (1996). Mainstreaming: a Strategy for Achieving Equality between Women and Men’, SIDA, Stockholm.
Statistics South Africa. (2017). Employment Trends in Agriculture in South Africa. Statistic South Africa viewed 26 August 2013 from http://www.statssa.gov.za.
Sweetman, C. (2001). Men’s Involvement in Gender and development Policy and Practice: Beyond Rhetoric. Oxfam, United Kingdom.
Sweetman, C. (2002). Gender, Development and Poverty: Oxfam Focus On Gender, Oxfam publishers, United Kingdom.
Taylor, C. (2003). The Politics of Recognition, In Gutman, A., (ed) 1994, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, 25-77 viewed 19 October 2013 from http://www.elplandehiram.org/documentos/joustingNYC/politics of recognition.pdf.
Taylor, V. & Rupp, L. (1991). Researching The Women's Movement: We Make Our Own History, But Not Just as We Please, In Fonow, M. &. Cook, A (Eds.), Beyond Methodology: Feminist scholarship as lived research, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 119-132).
Teleman, D. (2012). Food Security: Research Findings for Policy Makers and Practitioners, IDS Knowledge Service Publication.
Walby, S. (1990). Theorizing Patriarchy, Blackwell, Oxford.
Wallace, A. R. (1989). Feminism and Sociological Theory: 4 Key Issues in Sociology, Sage Publications, London.
Wasti, M., & Cortina, S. (2005) Profiles in Coping: Responses to Sexual Harassment across Persons, Organizations and Cultures, Journal of Applied Psychology, 90 (1) 182-192.
Webb, P. (1989). Intra-Household Decision Making and Resource Allocation: The Effects of Rice Commercialization in West Africa, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
Weber, M. (1949). Max Weber on the Methodology of the Social Sciences, In Shils, E.A & Finch, (eds), Free Press, Glencoe IL.
Whitehead, A., n.d, Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production., Gender and Third World Development, Module 7, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.
World Health Organization. (2013). Food Security: Trade, Foreign Policy, Diplomacy and Health, viewed 19 August 2013 from http://wwww.who.int/trade/glossary.
Young, G. (1999). Hierarchy and class in women’s organizations: A case study from Northern Mexico viewed 15 April 2013 from http://plato.stuanford.edu/entries/feminist-power.
Young, K. (1993). Household Resource Management, Gender and Third World Development, Module 6, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.
Breen, R., & Rottman, B., (1995). Class Stratification: A comparative Perspective, Harvester, Wheatsheaf, New York.
Brown, C.K. (1994). Gender Roles in Household Allocation of Resources and Decision Making in Ghana, Family and Development Programme (FADEP), Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana.
Brown, L R, Feldstein,H., Haadad, L., Pena, C., and Quisumbing, A. (2001), Women As Producers, Gatekeepers And Shock Absorbers. In: Per Pinstrup Anderson and RajulPandya -Lorch (eds), The Unfinished Agenda - Perspectives on overcoming Hunger, Poverty and Environmental Degradation, DFID Sustainable livelihoods Guidance.
Brown, L. R., & L. Haddad. (1995). Time Allocation Patterns and Time Burdens: A Gendered Analysis of Seven Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D. C. Photocopy.
Bryceson, D.F., Mbara, T.C., & Maunder, D. (2003), Livelihoods, Daily Mobility and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa, Transport Reviews 23 (2), 177–196.
Bryceson, DF & Howe, J. (1993). African Rural Households and Transport: Reducing the Burden of Women, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Buiten, S. (2007). Gender, Transport and The Feminist Agenda: Feminist Insights Towards Engendering Transport Research, Transport and Communication Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific 76.
Burchi, F & Muro, P. (2012). A Human Development and Capability Approach to Food Security: A Conceptual Framework and Information Basis. Working Paper, United Nations Programme Regional Burea for Africa.
Burn, S. (2005). Women across Cultures: A Global Perspective, 2nd ed, MacGraw-Hill, New York.
Butler, J. (1988). Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory. Theatre Journal, 40 (4), 519-531.
Button, K., & Nijkamp, P. (1997). Social Change and Sustainable Transport, Journal of Transport Geography, 5(3) 215-218, viewed 16 October 2012 from http://dare.ubvu.vuinl/bitstrea/handle/1871.
Byrne, D. (2005). Social Exclusion, MacGraw Hill International.
Calhoun, D. (2002). Dictionary of the Social Science, Oxford University Press.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online. (2013). Cambridge University Press, viewed 18 April 2013 from http://www.cambridgedictionaries.com.
Cambridge English Dictionary. (2012). Cambridge University Press, viewed 19 April 2013 from http://www.cambridgedictionaries.com.
Campbell, E & Wasco, M. (2000). Researching the Vulnerable: A guide to Sensitive research methods, In Liamputtong, P., (eds), Researching the Vulnerable: A guide to sensitive research methods, Sage Publications.
Carr, E. (2008). Men’s crops ad Women’s Crops: The importance of gender to the understanding of Agricultural and development outcomes in Ghana’s Central Region, World Development 36 (5), 990-915 Elsevier, USA, viewed 29 June 2013 from http://www.elsevier.com/locate/worlddev.
Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). (1999). The Economic Role of Women in Agricultural and Rural Development: Promoting, income-generation activities, Summary Report of Seminar, Anthens, Greece.
Chakwizira, J, Nhemachena, C & Mashiri, M. (2010). Connecting Transport, Agriculture and Rural Development: Experiences from Mhlontlo local Municipality Integrated Infrastructure. Atlas: Pretoria.
Cornwall, A. (1997). Men, Masculinity, and Gender in Development. Gender and Development 5 (2), 8–13.
Date-Bah, E. (ed.), (1997), Promoting Gender Equality at Work: Turning Vision Into Reality For The Twenty-First Century. Zed Books, New York.
Folbre, N. (1995). Engendering Economics: New Perspectives on Women, Work, and Demographic Change. In Proceedings of the Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics, M. Bruno and B. Pleskovic (eds), Washington, D.C, World Bank.
Folbre, N., (1982), "Exploitation Comes Home: A Critique of Marxian Theory of Family Labor, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 6 (4), 317-29, Oxford University Press.
Folbre, N., (1986), Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics. World Development, 14 (2), viewed 19 January (2013) from http://www.unc.edu/courses/201spring/econ/586.
Goetz, A., (eds), 1997). Getting Institutions Right for Women in Development, Zed Books, London.
Goetz, A.M, 1997, "Introduction: Getting Institutions Right for Women in Development", in Anne Marie Goetz (ed.), Getting Institutions Right for Women in Development, London and New York: Zed Books, 1-28.
Goetz, A.M., & Sen, A., Gupta, (1994), Who Takes the Credit? Gender, Power, and Control over Loan Use in Rural Credit Programmes in Bangladesh, Institute of Development Studies, Mimeo, In Goetz, A. M., and R. Sen Gupta., (1996), Who takes credit? Gender, power, and control over loan use in rural credit programs in Bangladesh. World Development 24 (1), 45–64.
Iman, A. Mama, A., & Sow. F., (1997), Engendering African Social Sciences. Dakar: CODESRIA.
Jackson, C, (2005), Strengthening Food Policy through Gender and Intra-household Analysis Impact Assessment of IFPRI Multicountry Research, Impact Assessment Discussion Paper, 2005.International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.
Jackson, E. & Jones, J. (ed), (1998), Contemporary Feminist Theories, University Press: New York.
Jackson, S., (1992), Mainstreaming WID: A survey of Approaches to Women in Development Troeaire Development Review, 85-105.
Khan, A & Bibi, Z., (2011), Women’s Socio-economic Empowerment through Participatory Approach: A Critical Assessment, Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 49 (1), 133-148.
Liepins, R., (1996), “Reading Agricultural Power: Media as Sites and Processes in the Construction of Meaning,” New Zealand Geographer 52, 3-10.
Liepins, R., (1998), “Fields of Action: Australian Women's Agricultural Activism in the 1990s,” Rural Sociology, 63,128-56.
Liepins, R., (2000), “Making Men: The Construction and Representation Of Agriculture-Based Masculinities In Australia And New Zealand”, Rural Sociology 65, 605-620.
Lips, H., (1991), Women, Men and Power. MacGraw Hill, Higher Education.
Little, J., (1994), Gender Planning and The Policy Process, England, Pergamon Oxford.
Macionis, J. & Plummer, K. (2008). Sociology: A Global Introduction, Essex Pearson Education Limited.
Mahapa, S. M & Mashiri, M. (2010). Social Exclusion and rural transport: Gender aspects of a road improvement project in Tshitwe, Northern Province, Development Studies South Africa, 18, (3).
Marx, K. (1846). The German Ideology, with F. Engels Republished in D. McLellan.
Meijerink, G. & P. Roza. (2007). The Role of Agriculture in Development. Markets, Chains and Sustainable Development Strategy and Policy Paper, no. 5. Stichting DLO, Wageningen, viewed 12 September 2012 from http://www.boci.wur.nl/UK/Publications/.
Mohanty, Chandra T. (1987). “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses", in Nalini Visvanathan (ed.) et al., The Women, Gender and Development Reader, London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 79-86.
Moser, Caroline O.N. (1993). Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training, London and New York, Routledge.
Nusbaum, M., & Glover, J. (1995). Woman, culture and Development: A case study of Human Capabilities, Oxford.
Oxfam.(1995). ‘Women and Culture,’ Gender and Development, Oxfam Journal, 3(1), Oxfam: Oxford.
Pillai N, Asalanta, B., & Ponnuswamy, B. (1995). Women in Development: Dissecting the Discourse. 1-48 viewed 16 December 2012 from http://mpra.ub.uni.muechen.de/13119.
Pini, B. (2005). “The Third Sex: Women in Leadership in Australian Agriculture.” Gender, Work and Organisation, 12 (1), 73-88.
Quinsumbing, A, R., Meinzen-Dick., & Smith, L. (2004). Increasing the Effective Participation of Women In Food And Nutrition Security In Africa. Proceeding of the International Food Policy Research Institute 2020 African Conference brief, Washington, DC.
Quisumbing, A. (2003). Household Decisions, Gender and Development, A synthesis of Recent Research, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC.
Quisumbing, A. R., L. R. Brown, H. S. Feldstein, L. Haddad, & C. Peña. (1995). Women: The Key to Food Security, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
Quisumbing, A., & McClafferty, B. (2006). Using Gender Research in Development, Food Security in Practice, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington.
Radel, C. (2011). Becoming Farmers: Opening Spaces for Women Resource Control in Calakmul, Mexico, Utah State University, Latin American Research Review, 42 (2) viewed 8 November 2012 from http://cnr.usu.edu/envs/htm/geography/claudia-radel-publications.
Rathberger, M, E. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice, The Journal of Developing Areas, 12, (4). 489-502 viewed 16 July 2013 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4191904.
Reeves, H & Baden, H. (2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions, prepared for the Department for International Development (DFID) for its gender mainstreaming, Institute of Development Studies, viewed 20 May 2013 from http://www.ids.ac.uk/bridge.
Ritzer, G., (eds), (2000). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, Blackwell Publishing, United Kingdom.
Saugeres, L. (2002). “She’s Not Really A Woman, She’s Half A Man: Gendered Discourses Of Embodiment In A French Farming Community, Women’s Studies International Forum, 25 (6) 641-650.
Schalkwyk, J., Thomas, H., & Woroniuk, B. (1996). Mainstreaming: a Strategy for Achieving Equality between Women and Men’, SIDA, Stockholm.
Statistics South Africa. (2017). Employment Trends in Agriculture in South Africa. Statistic South Africa viewed 26 August 2013 from http://www.statssa.gov.za.
Sweetman, C. (2001). Men’s Involvement in Gender and development Policy and Practice: Beyond Rhetoric. Oxfam, United Kingdom.
Sweetman, C. (2002). Gender, Development and Poverty: Oxfam Focus On Gender, Oxfam publishers, United Kingdom.
Taylor, C. (2003). The Politics of Recognition, In Gutman, A., (ed) 1994, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, 25-77 viewed 19 October 2013 from http://www.elplandehiram.org/documentos/joustingNYC/politics of recognition.pdf.
Taylor, V. & Rupp, L. (1991). Researching The Women's Movement: We Make Our Own History, But Not Just as We Please, In Fonow, M. &. Cook, A (Eds.), Beyond Methodology: Feminist scholarship as lived research, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 119-132).
Teleman, D. (2012). Food Security: Research Findings for Policy Makers and Practitioners, IDS Knowledge Service Publication.
Walby, S. (1990). Theorizing Patriarchy, Blackwell, Oxford.
Wallace, A. R. (1989). Feminism and Sociological Theory: 4 Key Issues in Sociology, Sage Publications, London.
Wasti, M., & Cortina, S. (2005) Profiles in Coping: Responses to Sexual Harassment across Persons, Organizations and Cultures, Journal of Applied Psychology, 90 (1) 182-192.
Webb, P. (1989). Intra-Household Decision Making and Resource Allocation: The Effects of Rice Commercialization in West Africa, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
Weber, M. (1949). Max Weber on the Methodology of the Social Sciences, In Shils, E.A & Finch, (eds), Free Press, Glencoe IL.
Whitehead, A., n.d, Gender-Aware Planning in Agricultural Production., Gender and Third World Development, Module 7, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.
World Health Organization. (2013). Food Security: Trade, Foreign Policy, Diplomacy and Health, viewed 19 August 2013 from http://wwww.who.int/trade/glossary.
Young, G. (1999). Hierarchy and class in women’s organizations: A case study from Northern Mexico viewed 15 April 2013 from http://plato.stuanford.edu/entries/feminist-power.
Young, K. (1993). Household Resource Management, Gender and Third World Development, Module 6, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.
Published
2023-07-06
How to Cite
Mmakola, K. L. (2023). Women’s Agricultural Labour and Its Contribution to Women Empowerment in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 6(7), 300-314. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i7.1494
Section
Main Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
